PAPERS 


PEABODY  MUSEUM  OF  AMEEIOAN  AEOHAEOLOGY  AND 
ETHNOLOGY,  HARVAED  UNIVERSITY 


Vol.  IV.— No.  3. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES 

IN  THE 

MAYA    CODICES 


BY 


ALFRED  M,  TOZZER  Ph.D. 


AND 


GLOVER  M.  ALLEN,  Ph.D. 


Cambridge,  Mass. 

Published  by  the  Museum 

February,  1910 


University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


Gift  of 

THE  ESTATE  OF 
VICTOR  WOLFGANG  VON  HAGEN 


PAPERS 


PEABODY  MUSEUM  OP  AMEEIOAN  AEOHAEOLOGT  AND 
ETHNOLOGY,  HAEVARD  UNIVEESITY 

Vol.  IV.— No.  3. 


ANIMAL  FIGUEES 

IN  THE 

MAYA    CODICES 

BY 

ALFRED  M.  TOZZER  Ph.D. 

AND 

GLOVER  M.  ALLEN,  Ph.D. 


Cambridge,  Mass. 

Published  by  the  Museum 

February.  1910 


Salem  press: 

The  Salem  Press  Co.,  Salem  Mass. 

1910. 


NOTE 

It  has  been  thought  desirable,  for  the  advancement  of  the 
study  of  Maya  hieroglyphs,  that  the  interpretation  of  the  con- 
ventionalized animal  figures,  which  so  frequently  occur  in  the 
Maya  codices,  should  be  undertaken.  The  Peabody  Museum 
Committee  on  Central  American  Research  therefore  requested 
Dr.  A.  M.  Tozzer  to  prepare  a  paper  on  the  subject,  and  to  secure 
the  valuable  cooperation  of  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen,  a  zoologist 
familiar  with  the  animals  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  to 
aid  in  the  identification  of  the  various  species  of  animals  which 
under  varying  forms  are  used  in  connection  with  the  glyphs. 

While  it  is  possible  that  some  of  the  determinations  given  in 
this  paper  may  require  further  confirmation,  it  is  evident  that 
the  combined  studies  of  Dr.  Tozzer  and  Dr.  Allen  cannot  fail  to 
be  useful  to  students  of  the  Maya  hieroglyphic  writing. 

F.  W.  Putnam. 
Harvard  University, 

August,  1909. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/animalfiguresinmOOtozzrich 


KEY  TO  THE  PRONUNCIATION  OF  MAYA  WORDS 

The  vowels  and  consonants  have  their  continental  sounds 
with  the  folio wing'except ions : — 

a    like  u  in  hut 

ai  like  i  in  island 

k  (lieltran's  c)  ordinary  palatal  k 

q  (Heltran's   k)  velar  k 

0  (Beltran^s  o)  ts  explosive  or  fortis 

0  (Belt ran 's  tz)  ts  non-explosive 

s   (Beltran's  x)  like  sh  in  hush 

ts  (Beltran's  ch)  like  ch  in  church 

ts  (Beltran's  ch)  ch  explosive 

p  (Beltran^s  pp)  p  explosive 

%  (Beltran's  th)  t  explosive' 


LIST  OF  PLATES 

Plate. 

L  Mollusca:  Fasciolaria  gigantea'Oliva. 

2.  Insecta:  Honey  hee  (Melipona). 

3.  Insecta  and  Myriapoda. 

4.  Arachnoidea,  Arachnida,  Crustacea. 

5.  Myriapoda,  Pisces. 

6.  Pisces. 

7.  Amphibia. 

8.  Amphibia,  Reptilia. 

9.  Reptilia  :  Rattlesnake  (Crotalus). 

10.  Reptilia:  Serpents.       / 

11.  Reptilia :  Serpents.  ; 

12.  Reptilia:  Iguana,  Lizards. 

13.  Reptilia:  Crocodile. 

14.  Reptilia:  Turtles. 

15.  Aves:  Herons,  Frigate-bird. 

16.  Aves :  Ocellated  Turkey  (Agriochans  ocellata). 

17.  Aves:  King  Vulture  (Sarcorhamphus  papa), 

18.  Aves:  King  Vulture  {S.  papa),     Black  Vulture 

(Catharista  uruhu) . 

19.  Aves:  Vultures.  \ 

20.  Aves:  Harpy  Eagle  (Thrasaetos  harpyia), 

21.  Aves:  Yucatan  Horned  Owl  {Bubo  virginianus 

mayensis) . 

22.  Aves:  Yucatan  Horned  Owl  {B.  v.  mayensis), 

23.  Aves:  Yucatan  Screech  Owl  {Otus  choliba  thompsoni), 

24.  Aves:  Quetzal  (Pharornacrus  mocinno). 

25.  Aves:  Blue  Macaw  {Ara  militaris). 

26.  Aves:  Parrots ,  Turkeys. 

27.  Aves:  Miscellaneous. 

28.  Various  animals. 

29.  Mammalia :  Armadillo  and  miscellaneous. 

30.  Mammalia:  Deer,  Hare. 


280  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

31.  Mammalia:  Yucatan  Deer  (Odocoileus  yucatanensis) . 

32.  Mammalia:  Yucatan    Peccary     (Tayassu    angulatum 

yucatanense),  YwcatOin  Deer  (0.  yucatanensis), 

33.  ^Mammalia:  Yucatan  Peccary  {T.  a,  yiccatanense) . 

34.  Mammalia:  Jaguar,  Puma. 

,    35.     Mammalia:  Jaguar,  Coyote,  Bear. 
36,  37.     Mammalia:  Dog  (Cams). 

38.  Mammalia:  Leaf-nosed  Bat  ( Vampyrus  or  Phyllostomus) . 

39.  Mammalia :  Monkey  {Cebus)  and  miscellaneous. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TEXT 

Fig. 

1.  Top  of  Altar  T,  Copan  (Mandslay,  I.  PL  95)      .     32Q 

2.  Pottery  whistle  from  Uloa  Valley,  Honduras; 

representing  a  vulture.  Peabody  Museum 
Memoirs.  I.  No.  4,  fig.  15    .        .        .        .    332 

3.  I 

4.  f  Glyphs  of  Maya  month  Moan  showing  moan- 

5.  r       bird  characteristics 339 

6.  j 

7.  Quetzal  [from   the  bas-rehef  of   the   Temple 

of'the  Cross,  Palenque  ....     341 

Glyphs  for  Maya  month  Kankin  (Ribs  of  dogs)   364 


11. 

12. 

-  ^     y  Glyphs  for  Maya  month  Zotz  (Bats)  .     .         .     365 

14. 

15.     Pottery  whistle  from  Uloa  Valley,  Honduras 

(Peabody   Museum   Memoirs,  I,  No.  4, 

fig.  14) ,  representing  an  ape  .        .        .     36d 

Glyphs  for  Maya  day  Chuen 367 


Glyphs  of  God  C.    (Schellhas,  Peabody 
Museum  Papers,  IV,  No.  1)  .      .        .        •     36S 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  various  peoples  inhabiting  Mexico  and  Central 
America  in  early  pre-Columbian  times  were  accustomed  to 
record  various  events,  especially  in  regard  to  their  calendar  and 
the  reHgious  ceremonials  in  relation  to  it,  on  long  strips  of  skin 
or  bark.  These  were  usually  painted  on  both  sides  and  folded 
together  Hke  a  screen.  Several  of  these  codices  are  still  in  ex- 
istence from  the  Nahua  and  Zapotec  areas  in  Mexico,  but  only 
three  have  come  down  to  us  from  the  Maya  region  which  is 
included  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  the  states  of  Tabasco 
and  Chiapas  in  Mexico,  and  portions  of  Guatemala  and  Hon- 
duras. These  three  manuscripts  are  the  Dresden  Codex  in  the 
Royal  Pubhc  Library  at  Dresden,  the  Tro-Cortesianus  (formerly 
considered  to  have  been  two,  the  Troano  and  the  Cortesianus) 
in  the  National  Archaeological  Museum  at  Madrid,  and  the 
Peresianus  in  the  National  Library  at  Paris.  These  pre-Colum- 
bian manuscripts  have  all  been  published  in  facsimile.  (See 
bibliography.) 

These  remains  of  a  once  extensive  literature  show  evidence 
not  only  of  considerable  intellectual  attainments  on  the  part  of 
their  authors  but  also'of  a  high  degree  of  artistic  skill  in  the  draw- 
ings and  hieroglyphics.  The  frequent  occurrence  in  these 
manuscripts  of  representations  of  animals  showing  various 
degrees  of  elaboration  and  conventionahzation  has  led  us  to 
undertake  the  task  of  identifying  these  figures  as  far  as  possible 
and  studying  the  uses  and  significance  of  the  several  species,  a 

(283) 


284  ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES 

field  practically  untouched.*  Forstemann  in  his  various  com- 
mentaries on  *the  Maya  codices  (1902,  1903,  1906),  Brinton 
(1895),  and  deRosny  (1876)  have  only  commented  briefly  upon 
this  side  of  the  study  of  the  manuscripts.  Seler  (1904a)  and 
some  others  have  written  short  papers  on  special  animals.  Dur- 
ing the  preparation  of  this  paper  there  has  appeared  a  brief 
account  by  Stempell  (1908)  of  the  animals  in  the  Maya  codices. 
The  author  has,  however,  omitted  a  number  of  species  and,  as 
we  believe,  misidentified  others.  In  making  our  identifications 
we  have  given  the  reasons  for  our  determinations  in  some  detail 
and  have  stated  the  characteristics  employed  to  denote  the 
several  species. 

We  have  not  Umited  ourselves  entirely  to  the  Maya  manu- 
scripts as  we  have  drawn  upon  the  vast  amount  of  material 
available  in  the  stone  car\dngs,  the  stucco  figures,  and  the 
frescoes  found  throughout  the  Maya  area.  This  material  has 
by  no  means  been  exhausted  in  the  present  paper.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  figures  from  the  Maya  codices  and  a  comparatively 
few  from  other  sources  in  the  Maya  region,  w^e  have  introduced 
for  comparison  in  a  number  of  cases  figures  from  a  few  of  the 
ancient  manuscripts  of  the  Nahuas  and  the  Zapotecs  to  the 
north.  The  calendar  of  these  two  peoples  is  fundamentally 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Mayas.  The  year  is  made  up  in  the 
same  way  being  composed  of  eighteen  months  of  twenty  days 
each  with  five  days  additional  at  the  end  of  the  year.  There  is 
therefore  a  more  or  less  close  connection  as  regards  subject 
matter  in  all  the  pre-Columbian  codices  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America  but  the  manner  of  presentation  differs  among  the  differ- 
ent peoples  of  this  region. 

*Tlie  first  two  parts  of  Dr.  Seler' s  Treatise,  "Die  Tierbilder  der  mex- 
ikanischen  und  der  Maya-Handschriften"  published  in  the  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Ethnologle,  Vol.  41,  have  appeared  during  the  time  when  this  paper 
was  passing  through  the  press.  The  most  excellent  and  exhaustive 
treatment  by  Dr.  Seler  would  seem  to  render  the  present  paper  un- 
necessary. It  has  seemed  best,-  however,  to  continue  with  its  pubhca- 
tion  inasmuch  as  its  field  is  narrower  and  more  space  is  devoted  to  the 
Maya  side  of  the  question  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Mexican.  Dr.  Seler, 
on  the  other  hand,  while  by  no  means  neglecting  the  Maya,  has  spent 
more  time  in  explaining  the  Mexican  figures. 


SYNOPTIC    CONSIDERATION    OF    THE    MEANING    AND 
OCCURRENCE  OF  ANIMAL  FORMS 

Before  taking  up  the  different  animals  in  the  codices  it 
may  be  well  to  consider  some  of  the  more  common  ways  in 
which  the  figures  occur  and  their  connection  with  the  surround- 
ing figures. 

Manner  of  representation.  The  entire  body  of  the 
animal  may  be  represented  reahstically  or  the  head  alone  may 
be  shown.  The  animal  head  is  frequently  attached  to  a  human 
body.  The  animal  may  appear  conventionaHzed  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  and  the  head  in  turn  may  change  in  the  same  way 
until  only  a  single  characteristic  of  the  animal  remains  by  which 
to  identify  it  as,  for  example,  the  spots  of  the  jaguar  or  the 
feathering  around  the  eye  of  the  macaw.  In  the  case  of  the 
glyphs,  a  term  employed  to  designate  the  regular  and  usually 
square  characters  appearing  in  lines  or  columns  throughout  the 
codices  and  inscriptions,  we  find  both  the  reahstic  drawing  and 
that  where  conventionahsm  has  come  in. 

The  Tonalamatl.  The  Maya  codices  are  made  up,  for 
the  most  part,  of  the  records  of  the  sacred  period  of  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty  days,  a  period  called  in  Nahuatl,  tonalamatl, 
and  other  numerical  calculations.  The  tonalamatl  was  used 
for  purposes  of  divination  in  order  to  find  out  whether  good 
or  bad  fortune  was  in  store  for  an  individual.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary at  this  place  to  go  into  the  different  means  taken  to  record 
this  period  of  time  or  its  methods  of  use.  It  may  be  well,  how- 
ever, to  explain  the  usual  distribution  of  the  pictures  in  the 
codices,  including  those  of  animals,  in  connection  with  the  re- 
presentation of  the  tonalamatl.     A  normal  period  is  shown  in 

(285) 


286  ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN    THE   MAYA    CODICES 

Dresden  6c-7c.     A  column  of  five  day  signs  occurs  in  the  middle 
of  6c  with  a  single  red  dot  over  it.     To  the  right  of  this  column 
stretches  a  horizontal  hne  of  numbers  consisting  of  alternate 
groups    of    black  and  red  lines  and  dots.     Under  each  pair  of 
red  and  black  numbers  there  is  usually  a  human  form  and  over- 
each  pair  a  group  of  four  glyphs  belonging  to  the  figure  below.. 
Schellhas  (1904)  has  classified  the  various  figures  of  gods  ap- 
pearing in  these  vignettes  of  the  tonalamatl  and  lettered  them.. 
References  throughout  the  paper  will  be  made  to  the  gods  by 
letters  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  Schellhas'  paper.     Animal 
figures  often  take  the  place  of  these  gods  as  in  the  second  picture 
in  Dresden  7c  where  the  screech  owl  is  shown  with  human  body. 
The  greater  number  of  animal  figures  in  the  codices  occur  in 
some  connection  with  these  tonalamatls. 

Mythological  animals.  Where  figures  are  shown  with 
human  body  and  animal  head  standing  alone  in  the  place  usually 
occupied  by  one  of  the  various  deities  in  the  tonalamatl,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  they  have  a  mythological  meaning  and 
are  to  be  taken,  either  as  gods  themselves,  or  as  representing 
certain  of  the  gods.  All  of  the  animals  are  by  no  means  shown 
in  this  position.  The  screech  owl,  or  Moan  bird  (as  in  Dresden 
10a)  appears  most  frequently  in  this  way.  The  king  vulture 
(Dresden  8a),  the  dog  (Dresden  7a),  and  the  parrot  (Dresden 
40b)  come  next  in  descending  importance.  The  animals  repre- 
sented as  copulating  (as  in  Dresden  13c)  might  also  be  con- 
sidered as  mythological  animals  as  well  as  the  full  drawings  of 
the  jaguar  (Dresden  8a)  and  the  other  animals  when  they  occur 
alone  in  the  regular  vignette  of  the  tonalamatl.  The  four  priests 
in  Dresden  25a-28a  should  also  be  regarded  as  representing,  in 
all  probability,  the  dog  as  a  mythological  animal.  The  idea  of 
worshipping  animals  as  gods  in  themselves  is  strengthened  by 
noting  the  ease  with  which  the  Maya  people  worshipped  the 
horse  which  was  left  behind  by  Cortes  in  his  march  from  Mexico 
across  to  Honduras  (Villagutierre,  1701,  pp.  100-101). 

Astronomical  ideas.  Animals  frequently  have  a  part  to 
play  in  relation  to  the  constellations.  Throughout  the  codices 
and,  to  a  less  degree,  in  the  stone  carvings,  we  find  what  have 


ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES  287 

usually  been  considered  to  be  glyphs  for  several  of  the  constella- 
tions. Numerous  calculations  in  the  codices  make  it  clear  that 
the  Mayas  had  a  good  knowledge  of  astronomy.  These  glyphs 
are  usually  oblong  in  shape  and  three  or  more  are  arranged  to- 
gether end  to  end.  We  have  called  these  the  constellation 
bands.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  identify  these 
signs  of  the  various  constellations.  Animals  frequently  are 
pictured  below  these  bands.  The  dog  with  fire  brands  in  his 
paws  and  often  attached  to  his  tail  is  shown  in  several  places 
coming  head  downward  from  one  of  these  bands  (as  in  Dresden 
36a  ).  The  peccary  is  also  shown  in  the  same  position  although 
the  fire  brands  do  not  appear  (Dresden  68a).  A  figure  with 
macaw  head  occurs  once  standing  beneath  one  of  these  bands 
with  fire  brands  in  his  hands  (Dresden  40b).  The  serpent  (as 
in  Dresden  36a),  the  Uzard-crocodile-hke  animal  in  Dresden  74, 
the  turtle  (Tro-Cortesianus  71a),  the  vulture  (Dresden  38b), 
the  turkey  (Tro-Cortesianus  10b) ,  and  the  deer  (Tro-Cortesianus 
47a)  all  appear  in  connection  with  these  constellation  bands. 
It  is  impossible  at  this  time  to  decide  upon  the  part  these  various 
animals  play  in  relation  to  distinct  constellations.  In  addition 
to  the  animals  named,  several  of  the  gods,  especially  god  B,  are 
found  below  these  bands.  One  of  these  signs,  the  one  identified 
by  Forstemann  as  standing  for  Saturn,  is  composed  of  the  head 
of  the  crocodile  more  or  less  conventionahzed. 

Forstemann  (1902,  p.  27)  identifies  the  turtle  with  the  sum- 
mer solstice  and  the  snail  as  the  animal  associated  with  the 
winter  solstice.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  one  animal 
used  in  connection  with  any  one  of  the  cardinal  points.  In 
Tro-Cortesianus  88c  the  dog  seems  to  be  associated  with  the 
north  as  shown  by  the  glyph  which  is  ordinarily  regarded  as 
connected  with  that  direction,  the  ape  with  the  west,  and  an 
unidentifiable  bird  sitting  on  a  Cimi  (death)  sign  with  the  south. 
The  east  is  connected  in  this  place  with  a  human  figure.  It 
should  be  stated,  however,  that  it  is  not  absolutely  certain  that 
the  usual  assignment  of  the  cardinal  points,  each  to  its  special 
direction,  is  correct.  The  signs  for  the  east  and  west  as  well  as 
those  for  the  north  and  south  may  be  reversed.     With  the  ex- 


288  ANIMAL    FIGURES   IN  THE    MAYA    CODICES 

ception  of  the  assignment  of  the  offering-glyphs  to  the  various 
cardinal  points  which  will  be  discussed  later  (p.  290)  this  is  almost 
the  only  case  where  a  clear  relation  can  be  made  out  between 
the  various  animals  and  the  signs  for  the  four  directions.  There 
is  no  definite  relation  as  is  seen,  for  example,  in  the  Vaticanus 
3773,  17,  18  where  the  quetzal  is  noted  perched  on  the  tree  of 
the  east,  the  eagle  on  that  of  the  north,  the  humming  bird  on 
that  of  the  west,  and  the  jaguar  on  the  tree  of  the  south. 

Copulation.  The  conception,  the  period  of  pregnancy, 
the  infant  baptism,  and  possibly,  the  naming  of  children  are 
shown  in  both  the  Tro-Cortesianus  (91-95)  and  the  Dresden 
(13-23).  Animals  are  frequently  shown  copulating  with  various 
gods  or  with  one  another.  In  Dresden  13c,  the  deer  and  god  M 
and  the  vulture  and  the  dog;  in  19c,  the  vulture  and  a  woman; 
in  Tro-Cortesianus  91  d,  a  god  and  a  woman;  and  in  92d,  an 
armadillo  and  a  deer  both  with  female  figures.  These  animals 
probably  represent  in  some  way  the  totems  of  the  man  or  woman 
in  question  and  are  shown  in  place  of  the  human  figure.  The 
Lacandones,  a  Maya  people,  show  at  the  present  time  the  re- 
mains of  a  totemic  system  (Tozzer,  1907,  pp.  40-42).  The 
deer  (Ke)  gens  is  found  at  the  present  time.  In  the  greater 
number  of  cases  where  copulation  is  shown  a  god  and  a  female 
figure  are  pictured.  The  presentation  of  the  new-born  chil- 
dren by  women  with  bird  head-dresses,  also  occurring  in  this 
same  section  of  both  manuscripts,  is  discussed  later  (p.  291). 

Animal  sacrifices.  Various  ceremonials  occurring  at 
intervals  throughout  the  Maya  year  which  included  sacrifices 
to  the  gods,  evidently  took  up  a  large  part  of  the  time 
of  the  people.  Animals  composed  by  far  the  major  part  of 
the  gifts  made  to  the  gods.  This  was  especially  true  in  regard 
to  the  ceremonies  occurring  at  the  beginning  of  each  year.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Maya  calendar  there  were  four  days  only  which 
could  come  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  and  these  came  in  suc- 
cession. Landa  (1864,  pp.  210-233),  the  first  Bishop  of  Yuca- 
tan, gives  a  minute  description  of  the  rites  of  the  four  years 
which  were  named  according  to  the  initial  day.  He  also  relates 
the  manner  in  which  the  various  animalsare  employed  as  offer- 


ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES  289 

ings  in  these  rites  and  also  in  others  taking  place  at  the  beginning 
of  the  various  months.* 

The  rites  which  took  place  at  the  beginning  and  the  end  of 
the  year  are  shown  in  Dresden  25-28  and  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
34-37.  The  dog,  the  deer,  and  the  turkey  are  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  animals  shown  as  being  offered  to  the  gods  in  this 
connection.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  consider  these  animals 
in  detail  at  this  place  as  they  are  each  taken  up  later. 

Offerings  shown  by  glyphs.  It  is,  however,  in  another 
connection  than  that  just  considered  that  the  animals  are  shown 
as  offerings  far  more  frequently  throughout  the  Maya  manu- 
scripts. In  the  ceremonies  of  the  four  years,  the  animals  and 
birds  are,  for  the  most  part,  represented  entire  and  purely  as 
pictures.  Offerings  are  also  shown  in  the  form  of  glyphs.  These 
may  occur  in  connection  with  the  figures  of  the  gods  or  in  the 
lines  of  hieroglyphs  above  the  pictures.  When  they  are  used 
in  the  former  relation  they  are  usually  shown  as  resting  in  a 
bowl  or  dish  (Dresden  35a).  It  frequently  happens  that  when 
a  god  is  making  an  offering  represented  by  the  entire  animal  or 
a  glyph  of  the  animal  in  the  main  picture,  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing glyph  of  the  offering  above  in  the  Hne  of  hieroglyphics  (Dres- 
den 23b). 

The    fish,  iguana,  turkey,  deer    and    possibly    the    lizard 

*  p.  162.  ''Las  mugeres  no  usavan  destos  derrammamientos,  aunque 
eran  harto  santeras  ;  mas  de  todas  las  cosas  que  aver  podian  que  son 
aves  del  cielo,  animales  de  la  tierra,  o  pescados  de  la  agua,  siempre  les 
embadurnavan  los  rostros  al  demonio  con  la  sangre  dellos." 

p.  164.  "Y  otras  cosas  que  tenian  ofrecian;  a  algunos  animales 
les   sacavan   el    corazon   y  lo   ofrecian,  a    otros    enteros,    unos  vivos, 

otros    muertos,    unos    crudos,    otros    guisados Que    sin    las 

fiestas    en  las  quales,  para  la  solemnidad  de  ellas,  se  seerificavan  ani- 
males, tambien  por  alguna  tribulacion  o  necessidad." 

p.  254.  "Tenian  buscados  todos  animales  y  savandijas  del  campo  que 
podian  aver  y  en  la  tierra  avia,  y  con  ellos  se  junta  van  en  el  patio  del 
templo  en  el  qual  se  ponian  los  Chaques  ....  Sacavan  con  liberalidad 
los  coragones  a  las  aves  y  animales,  y  echavanlos  a  quemar  en  el  fuego; 
y  sino  podian  aver  los  animales  grandes  como  tigres,  leones  o  largartos, 
hazian  los  cora^ones  de  su  encienso,  y  si  los  matavan  trayanles  los  cor- 
agones  para  aquel  fuego." 
IV.  19 


290  ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES 

are  the  usual  animals  shown  as  glyphs  in  this  connection.  The 
frigate  bird  occurs  once  in  the  Dresden  (35a)  and  once  in  the 
Tro-Cortesianus  (34a)  as  an  offering.  The  dog,  curiously- 
enough,  does  not  seem  to  be  represented  by  an  offering-glyph 
although  he  has  a  glyph  of  his  own  when  appearing  in  other 
connections.  The  iguana  and  fish  are  shown  entire  although 
drawn  very  small;  the  head  is  the  only  part  usually  shown  of 
the  turkey  and  the  haunch  of  venison  of  the  deer.  The  head 
and  feet  of  the  lizard,  as  has  been  noted,  may  also  be  shown  by 
a  glyph.  The  turkey  and  iguana  glyphs  are  very  often  found 
with  a  Kan  sign  indicating  an  offering  of  maize  and  bread  as 
well  as  that  of  the  animal.  In  connection  with  glyphs  showing 
various  offerings  of  food,  there  is  one  which  occurs  especially 
in  the  Tro-Cortesianus  (as  in  106a).  This  shows  a  row  of  points 
themselves  running  to  a  point  over  a  Kan  sign.  This,  as  will 
be  pointed  out  later  (p.  318)  may  also  represent  an  iguana.  The 
jar  containing  a  representation  of  the  honey  comb  (as  in  Tro- 
Cortesianus  107b)  might  come  in  here  in  the  consideration  of 
the  offering-glyphs. 

In  many  instances  the  common  offerings  shown  by  glyphs 
are  found  associated  with  the  signs  for  the  four  cardinal  points 
but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  strict  uniformity  as  to  the 
special  offering  associated  with  each  direction.  In  Dresden 
29b,  the  hzard  glyph  is  found  in  the  same  group  with  the  sign 
commonly  assigned  to  the  east,  the  turkey  with  the  south,  the 
iguana  with  the  west,  and  the  fish  with  the  north  while  in  Dres- 
den 29c,  the  deer  is  associated  with  the  east,  the  fish  with  the 
south,  the  iguana  with  the  west,  and  the  turkey  with  the  north. 
The  iguana  is  usually  found  with  the  sign  for  the  west  and  the 
fish  with  that  of  the  south.  The  others  vary  greatly  in  the  as- 
signment of  the  various  directions. 

Schellhas  (1904,  p.  17)  considers  that  the  fish,  the  lizard,  "the 
sprouting  kernel  of  maize  or  (according  to  Forstemann,  parts 
of  a  mammal,  game)"  and  a  vulture's  head  are  symbols  of  the 
four  elements.  The  head  which  Schellhas  interprets  as  that 
of  the  vulture  is  certainly  the  head  of  a  turkey.  He  remarks 
that  these  signs  of  the  four  elements  appear  with  god  B  in  the 


ANIMAL   FIGURES   IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES  291 

Dresden  manuscript.  Other  gods,  as  he  also  notes,  are  found 
with  these  four  offering-glyphs.  There  seems  to  be  a  fifth  glyph, 
however,  (as  in  Dresden  29b)  which  we  have  interpreted  as  that 
of  a  lizard. 

Animals  as  rain  bearers.  Various  animals  are  associated 
with  the  rain  and  water.  The  serpent  is  most  frequently  repre- 
sented in  this  connection.  Snails,  fish,  the  turtle,  and  the  frog, 
as  well  as  the  lizard-crocodile  figure  in  Dresden  74  are  naturally 
found  associated  with  water.  The  vulture-headed  figure  in 
Dresden  38b  and  the  vulture  as  a  bird  in  Tro-Cortesianus  10a 
both  appear  in  the  rain.  The  peccary  (Dresden  68a),  and  the  tur- 
key (Tro-Cortesianus  10b)  appear  associated  with  the  rain  as  well 
as  with  the  constellation  bands.  The  scorpion  (Tro-Cortesian- 
us 7a)  encloses  the  rain  within  its  legs. 

The  connection  of  an  old  female  figure  occurring  in  many 
places  in  the  codices  with  the  rain  will  be  discussed  later  (p.  316) 
when  considering  the  serpent.  It  remains  at  this  place  to  com- 
ment upon  the  woman  in  Tro-Cortesianus  30b  from  whose 
breasts  water  is  flowing.  She  is  represented  as  having  animal 
figures  seated  on  her  two  outstretched  hands  and  on  her  right 
foot  together  with  another  animal  at  her  side.  God  B  sits  on 
her  left  foot.  This  picture  immediately  recalls  representations 
in  the  Mexican  codices  where  the  various  parts  of  the  body  of  a 
god  are  associated  with  various  day  signs,  ten  of  which  have 
animal  names.  In  the  Maya  picture,  a  jaguar  is  shown  on  the 
right  hand,  a  peccary  on'  the  left,  a  dog  on  the  right  foot,  and  a 
rabbit  beside  the  body  at  her  right.  The  peccary  is  not  repre- 
sented among  the  Nahua  day  signs  but  the  other  three  are 
found,  namely  the  oceolotl  (jaguar),  itzcuintli  (dog),  and  tochtli 
(rabbit). 

Animal  head-dresses.  Animal  figures-  appear  perhaps 
most  frequently  as  head-dresses  of  the  various  gods  in  the  codi- 
ces. Here,  as  elsewhere,  from  all  that  can  be  made  out,  the  relig- 
ious character  is  uppermost  as  in  addition  to  being  a  deco- 
ration, they  undoubtedly  have  some  rehgious  signification. 
Birds  occur  by  far  most  commonly  in  this  connection.  Both  male 
and  female  figures  seems  to  have  these  head-dresses.     The 


292  ANIMAL   FIGURES    IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES 

same  bird  is  often  found  as  the  head-dress  of  several  different 
gods  as,  for  example,  the  turkey  which  appears  with  gods  A,  B, 
C,  E,  and  N.  The  vulture,  on  the  other  hand,  when  used  as  a 
head-dress  for  male  figures,  appears  exclusively  with  god  F. 
The  whole  bird  is  seldom  represented  on  the  head-dress  of  the 
male  figures.  It  is  usually  only  the  head  and  a  part  of  the  body 
of  the  bird  which  forms  but  a  portion  of  the  whole  head-cover- 
ing. Landa  (1864,  p.  148)^'  notes  the  dress  of  the  leader  in  the 
rites.  He  wears  a  jacket  of  red  feathers  worked  with  other 
feathers  and  from  it  hang  long  plumes.  He  also  wears  a  feather 
head-dress. 

Entire  birds  appear  as  the  sole  head-covering  only  in  con- 
nection with  female  figures  and  then  only  in  one  section  of  the 
Dresden  (16-18)  and  a  parallel  passage  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus 
(94-95).  In  both  these  places  the  conception  and  the  bearing 
of  children  are  shown  together  with  their  baptism.  The  bird 
above  the  head  of  each  female  figure  seems  to  be  a  badge 
of  office,  possibly  the  totems  which  are  held  by  the  women  and 
given  to  the  children.  The  parrot,  quetzal,  vulture,  screech  owl 
and  the  horned  owl  appear  in  this  connection.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  birds  associated  with  these  women  are  not  really  re- 
presented as  head-dresses  at  all.  They  are  quite  different  from 
the  head  decoration  composed  of  a  bird's  head  and  feathers 
seen  in  other  parts  of  the  manuscripts.  In  the  Dresden  es- 
pecially, these  birds  above  the  women's  heads  are  shown  in 
almost  every  case  standing  with  the  claws  clasping  the  necklace 
at  the  back  of  the  neck.  Landa  (1864,  pp.  144-154)  gives  an 
interesting  account  of  the  method  of  baptising  children.  He 
also  states  (p.  304)  f  that  in  the  month  Yaxkin  an  old  woman 
brought  the  Httle  girls  to  the  general  feast.     This  old  woman 

*  "Vestido  salia  con  un  jaco  de  pluma  Colorado  y  labrado  de  otras 
plumas  de  colores,  y  que  le  cuelgan  de  los  estremos  otras  plumas  largas 
y  una  como  coroza  en  la  cabe9a  de  las  mesmas  plumas. " 

t  "  Y  a  las  niSas  se  les  dava  una  vieja,  vestida  de  un  habito  de 
plumas,  que  las  traia  alii  y  por  esto  la  llamavan  Ixmol,  la  allegadera. 
....  Aquella  devota  vieja  allegaria  con  que  se  emborachava  en  casa 
por  no  perder  la  pluma  del  officio  en  el  camino." 


ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN    THE    MAYA    CODICES  293 

was  dressed  in  a  garment  of  feathers.  It  was  understood  that 
this  devoted  old  woman  was  not  permitted  to  become  intoxi- 
cated* lest  she  should  lose  in  the  road  the  plume  of  her  office. 

The  serpent  appears  as  a  head-dress  exclusively  with  female 
figures  and  then  usually  when  the  woman  is  in  the  act  of  offering 
something  or  is  associated  with  water  or  rain.  The  centipede 
occurs  only  with  god  D.  Quadrupeds  are  employed  as  head- 
dresses only  very  seldom.  The  head  of  a  deer  is,  in  three  places, 
used  as  a  part  of  the  head  decoration  of  god  M  and  the  head  of  a 
jaguar  appears  in  two  places  only. 

Secular  occupations.  Animals  appear  frequently  in 
scenes  showing  various  occupations.  These,  although  appearing 
at  first  sight  as  secular,  have  to  do  with  the  reHgion  of  the  peo- 
ple and  they  show  in  every  case  acts  undertaken  in  behalf  of  the 
deities.  It  is  almost  exclusively  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus  that 
these  rehgious-secular  occupations  are  shown. 

Hunting  scenes  occur  in  one  section  of  this  codex  (38-49). 
The  whole  aim  of  the  hunt  in  these  pages  is  to  obtain  animals 
for  sacrifice.  In  almost  every  case  the  various  animals  are 
shown  as  being  captured  alive,  either  in  a  pitfall  or  a  trap  of  the 
''jerk-up"  type."  This  was  undoubtedly  in  order  that  the  ani- 
mal might  be  killed  the  moment  it  was  offered  to  the  gods  by 
having  its  heart  cut  out.  Deer  are  most  commonly  represented 
in  this  hunting  section  although  peccaries  and  armadillos  also 
appear.     Fishing  is  shown  in  one  place  at  least  (Dresden  33a). 

The  practice  of  agriculture  is  shown  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
24-28.  The  sprouting  grain  is  represented  as  being  eaten  by  a 
vulture  and  a  jaguar.  Certain  gods  in  this  section  which  relates 
to  the  planting  of  maize  are  shown  as  being  attacked  by  vultures 
and  blow-flies.  Another  occupation  of  the  natives  depicted  in 
the  Tro-Cortesianus  (103-112)  is  apiculture.  This,  again,  has 
clearly  some  rehgious  significance.  Pottery-making  is  shown 
in  the  same  manuscript  (95-101).  It  is,  however,  a  purely  reli- 
gious ceremony.     The  renewal  of  the  incense-burners  is  shown. 

*  "Intoxication  was  obligatory  with  the  men  in  many  of  the  religious 
rites.  This  is  reported  by  the  early  Spanish  historians  and  is  the  case 
at  the  present  time  among  the  Lacandones."    (See  Tozzer,  1907,  p.  136.) 


294  ANIMAL   FIGURES    IN   THE    MAYA   CODICES 

Animals  occur  very  infrequently  in  this  section.  The  quetzal 
and  two  vultures  are  noted  seated  on  top  of  an  oven-Hke  cover- 
ing under  which  is  the  head  of  god  C,  probably  representing 
the  idol.  There  are  several  other  occupations  shown  in  this 
codex  such  as  weaving  (79c)  and  the  gathering  of  the  sap  of  the 
rubber  tree  (102b),  but  as  animals  do  not  occur  in  any  connec- 
tion with  these  operations,  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  them. 

Animal  glyphs.  It  remains  finally  to  speak  of  the  various 
animals  which  are  represented  in  glyph  form  as  well  as  drawn 
in  full  in  the  pictures  proper.  The  creatures  pictured  in  the 
codices  are  often  accompanied  by  their  glyphs  which  appear  in 
the  lines  of  signs  directly  above.  In  many  cases,  the  animal 
pictured  below  is  not  represented  by  its  glyph  above  and,  vice 
versa,  the  animal  glyph  may  appear  without  its  picture  below. 
The  same  is  seen  also  in  connection  with  the  representation  of 
the  gods  and  their  glyphs.  Both  the  picture  and  the  glyph 
usually  appear  but  either  may  appear  alone.  Many  times  when 
the  glyph,  either  of  a  god  or  an  animal,  is  shown  with  no  accom- 
panying picture,  the  reason  seems  to  be  that  there  is  no  room 
for  the  latter  on  account  of  the  numerical  calculations  which 
take  up  all  the  space. 

There  are  some  animals  in  the  codices  which  are  represented 
by  glyphs  very  frequently.  Among  these  are  the  screech  owl 
(the  Moan,  the  bird  of  death),  which  has  several  different  glyphs 
by  which  it  is  recognized,  the  dog  which,  in  addition  to  its  own 
glyph,  may  be  represented  by  the  day  sign  Oc,  the  king  vulture, 
the  turtle,  the  bee  (if  we  consider  the  day  sign  Cauac  stands  for 
this  insect),  and  the  centipede.  Among  the  animals  whose 
glyphs  only  seldom  appear  may  be  mentioned  the  macaw,  the 
peccary,  the  tree-toad  (god  P),  the  quetzal,  and  the  jaguar. 
The  glyph  for  the  black  vulture  (Tro-Cortesianus  26c),  the  ape 
(Tro-Cortesianus  88c),  the  deer  (Peresianus  10),  the  eagle  (Tro- 
Cortesianus  107c),  and  the  serpent  (Tro-Cortesianus  106c) 
seem  to  appear  but  once.  It  might  also  be  well  to  mention  in 
this  place  the  glyphs  for  various  molluscs  which  are  used  not  to 
represent  the  shell  but  to  give  the  value  of  zero  to  the  numerical 
calculations. 


ANIMAL   FIGURES  IN   THE   MAYA    CODICES  295 

In  the  inscriptions  glyphs  frequently  occur  which  represent 
animals  either  showing  the  whole  body  or  simply  the  head.  In 
the  eastern  fa9ade  of  the  Monjas  at  Chichen  Itza  there  are  glyphs 
for  both  the  king  and  the  black  vulture  and  the  peccary.  The 
macaw  and  the  turtle  seem  also  to  be  represented  by  glyphs  in 
the  inscriptions.  The  Tun  period  glyph  shows  vulture-hke 
characteristics  and  the  Uinal  period  glyph  certainly  resembles 
the  hzard.  The  glyphs  representing  the  various  animal  offer- 
ings have  already  been  discussed  under  a  special  heading(p.  289). 


II 

ZOOLOGICAL     IDENTIFICATION     AND    ETHNOLOGICAL 
EXPLANATION  OF  ANIMAL  FORMS. 

In  the  descriptions  of  the  animals  which  follow  the  general 
plan  will  be  to  consider  first  the  identification  purely  from  a 
zoological  point  of  view,  and,  secondly,  the  connection  and, 
wherever  possible,  the  meaning  of  the  use  of  the  various  animal 
figures  wherever  they  occur. 

MOLLUSCA 

Fasciolaria  gig  ante  a.  Representations  of  this  marine 
sheU  are  found  in  several  places  in  the  codices.  It  is  the  only 
large  Fusus-like  species  on  the  western  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and,  indeed,  is  the  largest  known  American  shell.  It 
is  therefore  not  strange  that  it  should  have  attracted  the  atten-" 
tion  of  the  Mayas  and  found  a  place  in  their  writings.  Several 
figures  are  shown  that  represent  Fasciolaria  (PL  1,  figs.  1-9). 
One  in  the  Codex  Vaticanus  3773  (PI.  1,  fig.  3)  in  common 
with  those  shown  in  PL  1,  figs.  2,  6,  9,  has  the  spire  represented 
by  segments  of  successively  smaller  size.  The  species  of  Fas- 
ciolaria occurring  on  the  Yucatan  and  adjacent  coasts  is  charac- 
terized by  numerous  prominent  bosses  or  projections  on  its 
later  whorls,  and  these,  too,  appear  in  conventionaHzed  form 
in  most  of  the  representations.  In  PL  1,  fig.  2,  the  second 
whorl,  and  in  figs.  6,  9,  the  third  whorl  is  shown  with  three  stout 
tubercles  in  side  view,  corresponding  to  those  found  in  this 
region  of  the  shell.  Figs.  7,  8  (PL  1)  are  glyphs  representing 
the  same  species,  but  as  in  fig.  4,  the  spire  is  omitted,  though 
the  knobs  are  present.  Round  spots  of  color  are  evidently  in- 
tended by  the  markings  on  the  shells  shown  in  figs.  3,  5,  6  (Pl.l). 
(296) 


ANIMAL    FIGURES    IN   THE    MAYA    CODICES  297 

Fig.  5,  shows  a  further  modification  of  the  spire,  which  here  is 
made  Hke  the  head  of  a  serpent. 

The  Mollusca  in  the  codices  are  not  always  associated  with 
the  water  although  this  is  usually  the  case.     God  N  (PL  1,  fig. 
1)  sitting  with  the  shell  around  his  body  is  represented  as  in  the 
rain  and  the  shells  in  PI.  1,  figs.  4,  6,  appear  under  water.     The 
snail  (Maya,  sot)  is  considered  by  the  Nahuas  as  the  symbol  of 
birth  and  death.    The  first  idea  is  well  brought  out  in  PI.  1,  fig. 
2,  where  the  human  figure  is  emerging  from  a  shell.     The  same 
idea  among  the  Mayas  is  seen  in  PI.  1,  fig.  1 ,  where  god  N  is  com- 
ing from  a  shell.     As  god  N  is  usually  associated  with  the  end 
of  the  year,  we  may  have  here  the  complementary  idea  of  death 
associated  with  the  shell.     The  same  meaning  is  brought. out 
in  the  Bologna  Codex  (PL  1,  fig.  3)  where  the  shell  is  decorated 
with  flint  points,  the  symbol  of  death.     As  the  tortoise  is  often 
identified  with  the  summer  solstice,  as  previously  pointed  out, 
so  the  snail  is  associated  with  the  winter  solstice. 

Forstemann's  identification  of  the  head-dress  of  god  D 
(Dresden  5c),  god  A  (Dresden  9c,  13a),  and  god  E  (Dresden  lie) 
as  representing  snails  is  not  clear.  Stempell  (1908,  p.  739)  also 
follows  the  same  course  thinking  that  the  knob-Hke  prominences 
represent  the  stalked  eyes  of  snails.  This  seems  quite  unhkely 
as  such  representations  are  usually  short  and  occur  in  too  widely 
dissimilar  connections.  Moreover,  there  are  sometimes  three 
of  these  instead  of  but  a  single  pair  (Dresden  14a).  A  similar 
attempt  has  been  made  by  Brinton  to  identify  the  head-dress 
of  the  death  god  (god  A)  as  the  snail.  The  head-dress  in  Dresden 
13a  and  13b  associated  with  god  A  looks  far  more  Hke  the  head 
and  upper  jaw  of  some  mammal. 

Oliva.  a  univalve  shell  frequently  represented  is  of  an 
oval  shape,  pointed  at  each  end,  with  a  longitudinal  lip  and  a 
short  spire  at  one  extremity.  This  is  doubtless  a  species  of 
Oliva,  a  marine  shell.  Mr.  Charles  W.  Johnson  informs  us  that 
0:  reticulata  is  the  species  occurring  on  the  Yucatan  shores, 
while  0 .  splendidula  is  found  in  other  parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Representations  of  this  shell  are  shown  in  PL  1,  figs.  10-12.  In 
figs.  10,  11,  the  lip  and  spire  are  apparent  but  in  fig.  12  the  lip 


298  ANIMAL   FIGURES   IN  THE   MAYA    CODICES 

only  is  seen  as  a  white  fissure  against  the  general  dark  back- 
ground. An  earthenware  vessel  representing  a  tapir  (PL  28, 
fig.  1)  shows  a  string  of  OUva  shells  about  the  animaPs  neck  and 
similar  strings  very  often  decorate  the  belts  worn  by  the  person- 
ages represented  on  the  stelae  of  Copan. 

The  shell  in  the  codices  is  found  in  most  cases  to  represent 
zero  in  the  Maya  numerical  calculations.  Just  as  a  bar  has  the 
meaning  five,  and  a  dot  one,  so  the  shell  often  has  the  signifi- 
cation of  zero.  This  is  seen  especially  in  th^  numeration  by 
position  in  the  codices  (PI.  1,  figs.  7,  8,  10-14). 

Other  Mollusca.  In  addition  to  the  species  just  described 
at  least  two  or  three  others  occur  in  the  Nuttall  Codex,  but  so 
conventionahzed  that  it  is  out  of  the  question  to  hazard  a  guess 
at  their  identity.  One  (PI.  1,  figs.  16,  17)  is  a  bivalve  with  long 
pointed  shell,  another  (PI.  1,  figs.  18-20)  is  rounder  with  con- 
ventionaHzed  scroll-hke  markings.  Figs.  21,  22  (PI.  1)  mav 
be  a  side  view  of  the  closed  bivalve  shown  in  figs.  16,  17,  or 
possibly  a  species  of  cowry.  In  Uke  manner,  fig.  13  is  probably 
a  side  view  of  the  mollusc  shown  in  fig.  14,  for  it  is  seen  that  in 
each  case  the  figure  showing  the  two  opened  valves  has  a  bi- 
partite extended  foot,  whereas  that  of  the  single  valve  is  simple. 
This  doubhng  of  the  single  median  foot  of  the  bivalve  may  be 
an  artistic  necessity  for  the  sake  of  balance,  or  perhaps  repre- 
sents both  foot  and  siphon  at  the  same  end.  Figs.  23,  24  (PI.  1) 
seem  to  represent  molluscs  still  further  reduced  and  conven- 
tionalized. These  molluscs  from  the  Nuttall  Codex  (PI.  1,  figs. 
15-24)  are  almost  all  found  represented  in  the  blue  water,  where- 
as those  which  stand  for  zero  in  the  Maya  codices  have  no  imme- 
diate association  with  either  water  or  rain. 

INSECTA 

The  Honey  Bee  (Melipona).  A  portion  of  the  Tro-Corte- 
sianus  appears  to  treat  of  apiculture,  as  previously  noted,  or, 
at  all  events,  contains  numerous  figures  of  bees,  some  of  which 
are  shown  in  PI.  2.  As  stated  by  Stempell  (1908,  p.  735)  this 
is  doubtless  a  species  of  Melipona,  probably  M.  fulvipes  or  do- 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  299 

mestica.  It  is  well  known  that  this  bee  was  kept  by  the  ancient 
Mexicans,  and  what  appear  to  be  improvised  hives  are  shown 
in  PI.  2,  figs.  7,  10,  where  the  combs  are  noted  depending  from 
the  ceiling  or  walls.  These  combs  are  seen  to  be  composed  of 
cells  roughly  four-sided  for  the  most  part,  though  in  fig.  11 
several  hexagonal  cells  are  present  in  the  mass  of  comb  held  by 
the  black  god,  M.  Darwin,  in  his  Origin  of  Species,  has  called 
attention  to  the  form  of  the  comb  built  by  this  bee,  and  con- 
siders its  irregular  cells  of  from  three  to  six  sides  intermediate 
in  their  degree  of  perfection  between  those  of  the  bumble  bee 
(Bombus)  and  the  honey  bee  of  Europe  (Apis  mellifica).  The 
Caban  form  in  connnection  with  the  hive  in  fig.  10  may  have 
some  phonetic  signifiance  as  kab  is  honey  in  Maya.  This  sign 
occurs  very  frequently  in  the  pages  devoted  to  apiculture. 

The  figures  of  the  bees  in  the  codex  show  a  number  of  inter- 
esting variations.  In  figs.  1-3,  5, 11,  the  insect  is  less  conven- 
tionaUzed  than  in  figs.  4,  6  (PL  2).  The  hairy  feet  are  well  in- 
dicated as  well  as  the  segmented  body  and  a  single  pair  of  wings. 
All  the  figures  show  an  anterodorsal  view  so  that,  on  account 
of  the  size  of  the  first  pair  of  legs,  only  the  tops  of  the  second 
pair  appear  in  PL  2,  figs.  1,  3,  5.  In  fig.  2,  however,  two  pairs 
are  seen,  and  in  figs.  4,  6,  the  anthropomorphic  tendency  is 
further  shown  by  providing  the  insect  with  two  pairs  of  limbs 
each  with  four  or  five  digits,  and  a  conventionaUzed  face,  eyes 
and  mouth.  In  PL  2,  fig.  1,  the  bee  is  represented  without 
mouthparts  but  antennae  only.  This  may  indicate  a  drone  or 
a  queen  bee  that  takes  no  active  part  in  the  work  of  gathering 
honey  or  making  comb.  Fig.  2  is  perhaps  the  least  reduced  of 
any  of  the  figures  and  shows  the  worker  bee  with  antennae  and 
mouthparts. 

The  so-called  '^cloud  balls"  of  the  day  sign  Cauac  (PL  2,  fig. 
8)  may  represent  the  honey  comb.  Cauac  is  usually  supposed 
to  have  some  connection  with  Hghtening  and  thunder  although 
Valentini  agrees  with  the  authors  in  associating  Cauac  with  the 
bees  and  honey.  The  Cauac-like  forms  in  PL  2,  figs.  7,  10,  have 
been  described  above  as  hives.  The  representation  of  legs  in 
the  full  drawing  of  a  bee  as  four  large  Hmbs,  an  anterior  and  a 


300  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

posterior  pair,  coupled  with  the  method  of  drawing  the  insect 
as  seen  from  above  and  in  fro^t,  may  have  led  to  its  final  ex- 
pression by  an  X-shaped  mark  shown  in  connection  with  the 
hives  (PL  2,  figs.  7, 10).  The  X  is  also  seen  in  the  day  sign  Cauac, 

Apiculture  was  common  among  the  various  peoples  of  Cen- 
tral America  and  Mexico.  Las  Casas  speaks  of  hives  of  bees 
and  Gomara  states  that  the  bees  were  small  and  the  honey 
rather  bitter.  Clavigero  (Vol.  T,  p.  68)*  mentions  six  varieties 
of  bees  which  were  found  in  Mexico;— the  first  is  the  same  as 
the  common  bee  of  Europe,  the  second  differs  from  the  first  only 
in  having  no  sting  and  is  the  bee  of  Yucatan  and  Chiapas  which 
makes  the  fine  clear  honey  of  aromatic  flavor.  The  third  species 
resembles  in  its  form  the  winged  ants  but  is  smaller  than  the 
common  bee  and  without  a  sting.  The  fourth  is  a  yellow  bee^ 
smaller  than  the  common  one  but,  like  it,  furnished  with  a  sting. 
The  fifth  is  a  small  bee  without  a  sting  which  constructs  hives 
of  an  orbicular  form  in  subterranean  cavities  and  the  honey  is 
sour  and  somewhat  bitter.  The  Tlalpipiolli,  which  is  the  sixth 
species,  is  black  and  yellow,  of  the  size  of  the  common  bee,  but 
has  no  sting. 

The  natives  of  the  country  at  the  present  time  often  culti- 
vate hives  of  bees  in  logs  which  they  hollow  out  for  this  purpose 
and  keep  in  a  specially  constructed  shelter.  It  is,  however, 
rather  the  ceremonial  side  of  apiculture  that  is  the  interesting 
feature  and  this  is  clearly  emphasized  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus. 
The  section  in  this  manuscript  (80b,  103-112),  as  has  been  noted, 
is  taken  up  almost  exclusively  with  the  culture  of  the  bee 
and  in  all  probability  represents  a  definite  reUgious  ceremony 
or  series  of  rites  which  are  connected  intimately  with  bees  and 
honey.  Landa  (1864,  p.  292)  f  states  that  in  the  month  Tzoz 
the  natives  prepare  for  a  ceremony  in  behalf  of  the  bees  which 
takes  place  in  the  following  month,  Tzec.  In  the  month  Mot 
another  fiesta  is  undertaken  in  behalf  of  these  insects  so  that 


*  Quoted  in  Thomas,  1882,  pp.  115,  116. 

t  "  En  el  mes  de  Tzoz  se  aparejavan  los  senores  de  las  colmenares   para 
celebrar  su  fiesta  en  Tzec." 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  301 

the  gods  may  provide  an  abundance  of  flowers  for  the  bees 
(Landa,  1864,  p.  306).* 

It  seems  clear  therefore  that  we  have  represented  in  the 
pages  of  the  Tro-Cortesianus  referred  to,  the  rites  carried  out  in 
this  connection.  The  more  or  less  reahstic  drawings  of  the  bees 
(PI.  2,  figs.  1-6,9)  represent  the  god  of  the  bees  and  to  him  offer- 
ings of  food  and  incense  are  being  made.  PL  2,  fig.  11,  shows 
the  war  god  (M)  with  his  eagle  head-dress  offering  a  mass  of 
honey  in  the  comb  to  the  god  of  the  bees. 

Curiously  enough  the  bee  does  not  seem  to  be  represented  in 
the  Dresden  Codex.  Forstemann's  identification  of  the  head- 
dress of  the  goddess  in  Dresden  9a  as  a  bee  does  not  seem  to  us 
to  be  correct. 

In  addition  to  the  bees,  there  occurs  in  the  Nuttall  Codex  4 
(PI.  3,  fig.  4)  a  curious  representation  of  an  insect  with  a  pointed 
beak-hke  structure  and  a  spine  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  its 
human-Hke  body.  It  is  engaged  in  apparent  conflict  with  a 
man  and  may  represent  a  hornet. 

Blow-fly  (Sarcophaga) .  Two  figures  in  the  Tro-Corte- 
sianus (PI.  3,  figs.  1,  2)  are  of  special  interest  since  they  appear 
to  have  been  frequently  regarded  as  picturing  snakes  attacking 
men.  These  are  thick-bodied  sinuous  creatures  distinguished  by 
the  curious  conformation  of  the  mouth  and  by  a  lateral  row  of 
dots  that  may  represent  the  metameric  spiracles  or,  as  com- 
monly, a  demarcation  between  dorsal  and  ventral  surfaces. 
That  these  are  maggots  of  a  blow-fly  (Sarcophaga)  there  can  be 
little  doubt,  not  only  on  account  of  their  mouth  parts  which  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  agave  maggot  (see  later)  but  also  because 
of  their  relation  to  God  F  whom  they  are  devouring.  The  latter 
in  fig.  1  is  doubtless  dead  as  shown  by  the  closed  eye  and  it  is  the 
habit  of  the  blow-fly  to  deposit  its  eggs  in  the  nasal  cavity  of 
dead  animals  as  well  as  elsewhere  on  the  body.  The  fact  that 
in  each  case  a  maggot  is  attacking  the  god's  nose  may  indicate 
that  this  habit  was  known  to  the  artist  who,  consequently, 

*  "  En  este  mes  (Mol)  tornavan  los  colmenares  a  hazer  otra  fiesta  como 
la  que  hizieron  en  Tzec,  para  que  los  dioses  proveessen  de  floras  a  las 
avejas." 


302  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

shows  the  larvae  in  this  position.  In  PI.  3,  fig.  2, the  god's  eye 
is  not  closed  but  his  passive  attitude  while  the  maggot  devours 
his  hand  and  nose  does  not  indicate  that  he  is  in  full  possession 
of  his  strength.  In  addition  to  the  blow-fly,  a  screw-fly  {Chryso- 
myia)  lays  its  eggs  on  the  bodies  of  animals,  often  on  persons 
sleeping,  and  these  may  hatch  almost  at  once  into  small  maggots 
that  penetrate  the  skin.  It  may  be,  therefore,  that  the  larvae 
here  considered  belong  to  this  genus. 

In  addition  to  god  F,  in  Tro-Cortesianus  24d,  there  is 
another  representation  of  the  same  god  being  attacked  by  a 
vulture.  This  bird  is  evidently  eating  his  nose.  In  this  case 
the  god  is  shown  with  the  closed  eye  as  in  27d.  In  Tro-Corte- 
sianus 25d  the  fly  seems  to  be  attacking  the  mouth  of  god  F. 
From  the  fact  that  no  other  god  is  ever  found  in  this  connection 
it  may  be  suggested  that  there  may  be  some  relation  between 
god  F  as  a  god  of  human  sacrifice  and  the  fact  that  his  dead 
body  is  being  eaten  by  blow-flies  and  vultures.  A  portion  of 
the  body  of  the  person  sacrificed  was  usually  eaten  by  those 
taking  part  in  the  ceremony. 

Lepidopterous  Insects.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  28c  (PI.  3, 
fig.  3)  is  shown  a  second  insect  larva  with  curiously  formed 
mouth  parts.  It  is  represented  as  attacking  agave  which  is 
springing  from  the  ground  as  shown  by  the  Caban  signs  in  the 
codex.  Hough  (1908,  p.  591)  has  shown  this  to  be  the  larva  of 
Acentrocneme  kollari  Felder,  ''called  by  the  Mexicans  guson, 
and  in  Nahuatl  mescuillin."  This  grub,  he  says,  is  white,  about 
an  inch  long,  and  tunnels  the  fleshy  leaves  of  the  agave.  It  is 
greatly  prized  as  an  article  of  food  for  "gusones  to  this  day  are 
collected  in  April,  boiled,  wrapped  in  the  epidermis  of  the  agave, 
sold  on  the  streets  of  Mexico,  and  are  eaten  with  avidity.  To 
all  appearances  they  are  nourishing  and  palatable,  and  it  is 
said  that  connoisseurs  prefer  them  to  oysters  or  swallows' nests.' ' 
Hough  beheves  "that  the  discovery  of  the  sap-yielding  quahty 
of  the  agave  was  through  search  for  these  larvae. ' ' 

In  the  Nuttall  Codex  occur  numerous  representations  of 
insects,  some  of  which  appear  to  represent  butterflies  or  moths 
(PI.  3,  figs.  5-8)  but  these  are  quite  unidentifiable.     That  shown 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  303 

in  fig.  6  is  colored  blue  in  the  original,  while  the  others  are  of 
various  colors.  Possibly  the  round  markings  on  the  wings  in 
figs.  5;  8,  represent  the  ocelli  on  the  wings  of  certain  species  of 
moths.  In  this  connection,  too,  it  is  interesting  to  compare 
the  conventionahzed  butterfly  with  its  single  eye  and  pointed 
antennae  from  the  Aubin  manuscript  (PL  3,  fig.  9)  with  one 
drawn  on  the  same  plan  from  the  Nuttall  Codex  (PI.  3,  fig.  8). 

MYRIAPODA 

Representations  of  a  centipede  (probably  a  species  of 
Scolopendra)  occur  in  the  Dresden  Codex  and  in  several 
others  examined.  That  shown  in  PL  5,  fig.  1,  from  the  Vati- 
canus  3773,  is  perhaps  the  least  conventionalized.*  This  figure 
appears  partly  to  encircle  a  temple,  behind  which  the  major 
portion  of  its  length  is  hidden  and  hence  is  not  here  shown.  The 
bipartite  structure  coming  from  the  animal's  head  doubtless 
represents  the  mouthparts,  and  at  its  base  on  either  side  arise 
antennae.  The  first  pair  only  of  legs  is  shown  with  a  pinching 
claw,  possibly  intended  as  a  conventionahzed  hand,  while  the 
rest  are  simple.  The  plumes  decorating  the  posterior  extrem- 
ity are  of  course  extraneous  and  represent  the  tail  of  the  quet- 
zal or  trogon. 

In  the  Dresden  Codex,  god  D  constantly  appears  in  connec- 
tion with  a  head-dress  from  which  depends  a  centipede,  greatly 
reduced  and  conventionahzed.  Two  forms  of  this  centipede 
are  shown  in  PL  3,  figs.  15,  18.  The  body  appears  to  consist  of 
four  or  five  segments  each  with  its  pair  of  ambulatory  appen- 
dages (though  there  may  not  always  be  the  same  number  of 
each)  terminated  by  a  circular  segment  with  a  conventionalized 
three-knobbed  structure,  apparently  corresponding  to  the  por- 
tion that  bears  the  quetzal  plume  in  PL  5,  fig.  1.  The  outline  of 
the  head  in  PL  3,  fig.  15,  is  shown  in  dotted  line  but  by  solid  fine 
in  fig.  18.  One  of  the  antennae  appears  to  be  omitted  from  the 
former  figure,  also,  but  both  are  present  in  the  latter.     The 

*  Strebel  (1899,  PL  11)  gives  several    reahstic   reproductions  of  the 
centipede  from  pottery  fragments. 


304  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

insect-like  head  is  made  on  much  the  same  plan  as  that  of  the 
bee  (PI.  2,  fig.  11),  the  faciaj  portion  divided  by  a  median  line 
into  a  right  and  a  left  half  with  a  small  triangle  below  for  a  mouth. 
The  eyes,  however,  instead  of  being  circular  hke  those  of  the  bee 
are  made  as  narrow  elongated  projections  extending  inward 
from  the  dorsal  margin  of  the  facial  disc. 

The  glyphs  for  god  D  in  Dresden  7b  (PI.  3,  fig.  11),  Dresden 
7c,  and  Dresden  14b  (PI.  3,  fig.  12)  undoubtedly  show  three 
forms  of  the  sign  for  god  D,  only  one  of  which  (fig.  12) is  given  by 
Schellhas  (1904,  p.  22)  among  the  signs  of  this  god.  In  each  of 
these  cases  the  centipede  head  surrounded  by  dots  is  shown  in 
connection  with  the  main  part  of  the  glyph.  In  Dresden  44b 
(PI.  3,  fig.  13)  there  is  a  glyph  which  seems  to  show  the  same 
centipede  head  although  it  has  no  connection  with  god  D  in  the 
place  where  it  is  found.  In  Dresden  27  (PI.  3,  fig.  14),  moreover, 
still  another  variant  of  the  glyph  for  god  D  seems  to  occur. 
This  shows  a  prefix  clearly  representing  the  centipede  and  the 
"moon  sign"  is  the  main  part  of  the  glyph.  Directly  beside 
this  in  the  codex  is  found  the  AhauAike  sign  for  god  D  and  god 
D  himself  is  represented  in  the  middle  section  of  the  page. 

The  association  of  god  D  with  the  centipede  may  be  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  as  this  god  is  regarded  as  the  Moon  or 
Night  god,  so  the  centipede  is  an  animal  which  frequents  dark 
places.  Another  point  in  this  connection  may  be  made  if  we 
consider  the  head  of  the  centipede  in  the  head-dress  and  in  the 
glyphs  as  representing  the  day  sign  Akbal  (PI.  3,  fig.  10)  as  Akhal 
in  Maya  means  night.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  the 
head  might  represent  the  day  signChuen  almost  as  well  sls  Akbal. 
The  centipede  is  connected  with  death  and  destruction  in  the 
same  way  as  the  owl.  Both  are  shown  in  Vaticanus  3773, 13, 
associated  with  the  ''house  of  drought." 

CRUSTACEA 

With  one  possible  exception  no  crustaceans  were 
found '  depicted  in  the  Maya  codices,  but  we  have  intro- 
duced figures  of  two  from  the  Nuttall  Codex.    The  first  of  these 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  305 

(PI.  4,  fig.  5)  is  probably  a  crayfish,  perhaps  Cambarus  monte- 
zumae.  It  seems  unlikely  that  the  so-called  Spanish  lobster 
(Palinurus)  can  be  intended  or  the  powerful  spined  antennae 
would  have  been  shown.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
stalked  eyes  are  clearly  pictured.  The  second  example  seems 
to  be  a  crab  (PL  4,  fig.  6).  Two  large  chelae  of  nearly  equal 
size  are  simply  drawn  and  four  rounded  projections  at  the  top 
of  the  figure  appear  to  represent  the  walking  legs.  Its  rotund 
form  and  subequal  chelae  suggest  the  land  crab,  Geocarcinus, 
but  exact  determination  is  of  course  impossible.  What  is  cer- 
tainly a  large  crab,  perhaps  of  the  same  species,  is  shown  in  Tro- 
Cortesianus  88c  (PI.  36,  fig.  1)  in  connection  with  a  dog  whose 
feet  it  seems  about  to  pinch  with  its  two  large  chelae.  The  shell 
is  ornamented  in  a  conventionalized  way  as  if  with  scales. 

ARACHNIDA 

In  Codex~|Borbonicus  9  (PI.  4,  fig.  4)  there  is  repre- 
sented a  stout-bodied  form  of  spider  with  two  sharply 
pointed  chehcerae  projecting  from  the  conventionaUzed  mouth. 
These  characteristics  together  with  the  absence  of  any  web, 
suggest  a  large  predacious  species,  probably  the  tarantula 
(Tarantula  sp.)  which  is  common  in  Mexico.  The  acute 
powers  of  observation  shown  by  the  artist  are  evinced  in  this 
figure  since  he  draws  the  spider  correctly  with  eight  legs  instead 
of  the  six  or  ten  sometimes  seen  in  drawings  by  our  own  illus- 
trators. 

ARACHNOIDEA 

The  scorpion  (Maya,  sinaan)  figures  prominently  in 
the  Tro-Cortesianus,  two  drawings  from  which  are 
shown  (PL  4,  figs.  1,  2).  As  here  conventionahzed,  the  jointed 
appendages  are  represented  as  composed  of  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  round  segments.  The  large  chelate  pedipalps  are  also 
prominently  figured  but  the  smaller  walking  legs  are  commonly 
omitted.  In  PL  4,  fig.  1,  however,  there  is  a  pair  of  posterior 
chelate  appendages  which  are  probably  added  to  give  a  more 
IV.  20 


306  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

anthropoid  cast  to  the  figure.  The  shght  projections  along  the 
sides  of  the  body  in  PI.  4,  fig.  2,  probably  do  not  represent  the 
legs.  In  another  drawing  (Tro-Cortesianus  44b)  these  are  also 
present  but  further  reduced  so  as  not  to  exceed  the  heavy  fringe 
of  spines  surrounding  the  body.  In  PL  4,  fig.  1 ,  the  fringe  alone 
appears.  The  formidable  nature  of  the  scorpion  is  of  course 
due  to  the  poisonous  sting  at  the  tip  of  the  attenuated  abdomen 
or  ''tail."  In  the  Maya  pictures  this  portion  is  usually  shown 
as  a  grasping  organ.  Thus  in  fig.  1  it  is  similar  to  the  chela  and 
holds  a  cord  by  which  a  deer  has  been  caught.  In  fig.  2  the 
"tail"  is  terminated  by  a  hand.  The  same  thing  is  seen  in  Tro- 
Cortesianus  44b  where  the  hand  seizes  a  cord  by  which  a  deer 
is  snared.  The  scorpion  is  represented  in  the  drawings  with  a 
conventionaUzed  face  that  is  very  characteristic.  The  facial 
disc  is  divided  into  three  parts  by  a  median  area  of  straight  or 
irregular  lateral  boundaries  ending  anteriorly  in  two  in-turned 
scrolls  suggesting  the  alae  of  the  nose.  A  circular  eye  is  pres- 
ent in  each  of  the  lateral  divisions  of  the  face  while  from  the 
oral  region  projects  a  forked  tongue. 

It  is  of  course  hazardous  to  attempt  a  specific  identification 
of  these  figures  but,  as  pointed  out  by  Stempell  (1908,  p.  739), 
there  are  two  large  scorpions  in  Yucatan  {Centruroides  margari- 
tatus  and  C.  gracilis)  which  are  probably  the  species  pictured  in 
the  codices. 

The  representations  of  the  scorpion  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus 
are  almost  always  associated  with  scenes  of  the  hunt. 
As  the  deer  is  caught  in  a  trap  so  Forstemann  considers  that 
PL  4,  fig.  1,  shows  a  trap  with  five  appHances,  the  ''tail"  one 
alone  being  effective.  Brinton  (1895,  p.  75)  notes  that  the 
Mayas  apphed  the  term  sinaan  ek,  "scorpion  stars"  to  a  certain 
constellation  and  suggests  that  it  was  derived  from  the  Span- 
iards. There  is  certainly  some  association  between  the  scorpion 
and  water  as,  in  Tro-Cortesianus  7a,  the  fore  and  hind  legs  of 
the  animal  enclose  a  body  of  water.  The  scorpion  "tail"  alone 
appears  in  Tro-Cortesianus  31a  and  82a  as  the  tail  of  a  god.  Its 
significance  is  difficult  to  make  out.  Destruction  is  indicated 
by  the  scorpion  in  the  Aubin  manuscript  as  suggested  by  Seler 
(1900-1901,  p.  71). 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  307 

In  the  Nuttall  Codex  there  is  a  remarkably  beautiful  con- 
ventionalization of  a  scorpion  (PI.  4,  fig.  3)  in  which  the  tri- 
partite nature  of  the  head  is  still  preserved  though  it  is  so  re- 
duced as  to  resemble  the  calyx  of  a  flower.  The  ''tail",  as  else- 
where, and  the  legs  are  present. 

PISCES 

Figures  of  fish  (Maya  kai)  occur  commonly  in  the  Maya 
codices  in  various  connections  as  well  as  in  the  stone  carvings, 
but  none  of  these  seems  certainly  identifiable.  Among  the 
representations,  however,  there  are  clearly  several  species.  One 
(PI.  5,  figs.  2,  6,  7-9;  PI.  6,  fig.  9)  has  a  single  dorsal  fin,  power- 
ful teeth,  and  a  generally  ferocious  aspect  and  may  represent 
some  large  predacious  variety,  perhaps  a  tunny.  The  distinct 
operculum  in  most  of  the  figures  would  preclude  their  represent- 
ing a  shark.  Other  figures  picture  similar  fish  without  the* 
prominent  teeth  (PI.  5,  fig.  4,  5;  PL  6,  figs.  2,  6, 10, 13).  In  two. 
cases  the  scales  are  diagramatically  shown  by  straight  or  cres^ 
centric  fines  (PI.  5,  fig.  4,  8).  A  third  species  of  fish  is  showi* 
provided  with  two  dorsal  fins  (PI.  6,  figs.  3,  11;  PI.  7,  fig.  6,  the 
last  an  excellent  stone  carving).  Others  (PI.  6,  figs.  7, 14-17) 
represent  fishes  without  dorsal  fins,  one  of  which  (fig.  7)  froico. 
its  length  may  be  an  eel,  possibly  Muraena. 

In  the  Nuttall  Codex  occurs  a  remarkable  fish  with  an  un^ 
mistakable  wing  arising  just  behind  the  head  nearly  at  the 
dorsal  fine.  While  this  may  represent  a  flying  fish  {Exocetus)^ 
the  head  is  so  bird-fike  that  the  whole  may  be  merely  a  conL- 
bination  figure. 

Of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Dresden  is  a  glyph,  two  modi- 
fications of  which  are  here  shown  (PI.  6,  figs.  4,  5).  Stempell 
suggests  that  the  vertical  fines  on  the  posterior  portion  of  such 
figures  may  be  gill  sfits  and  that  hence  they  may  represent 
sharks  in  which  these  orifices  are  without  an  operculum. 

As  with  the  molluscs,  so  with  the  fish,  we  naturally  find 
them  usually  associated  with  the  water.  This  may  be  seen 
especially  well  in  the  Nuttall  Codex.     In  Dresden  33a  (PL  6» 


308  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE     MAYA  CODICES 

fig.  13)  the  fish  is  clearly  associated  with  the  operation  of  fish- 
ing as  two  figures  are  seated  on  the  edge  of  a  body  of  water  in 
the  act  of  casting  a  net.  An  eel  is  shown  in  the  water  under 
god  B  in  Dresden  65b  (PI.  6,  fig.  7)  and  fish  are  shown  just  below 
the  claws  of  a  crocodile  in  text  figure  1.  In  Dresden  44a  god 
B  holds  a  fish  in  his  hands.  As  will  be  pointed  out  later  (p.  314) 
this  god  is  frequently  associated  with  water.  In  Dresden  44c  a 
fish  appears  between  god  B  and  an  unidentifiable  deity.  In  the 
Maya  codices  the  greater  number  of  representations  of  fish  are 
in  connection  with  sacrifice.  In  Dresden  27  (PI.  6,  fig.  6)  the 
fish  is  pictured  resting  on  two  Kan  signs,  the  symbol  of  maize 
or  bread,  and  these  in  turn  on  a  flat  bowl.  In  Dresden  29b 
(Pi.  5,  fig.  9)  the  fish  is  represented  between  the  red  and  black 
numbers  of  the  tonalamatl.  Here  again  the  fish  is  shown  as  an 
offering. 

In  two  cases  only  do  we  find  the  fish  used  as  a  part  of  the 
head-dress  and  in  each  case  the  fish  is  graphically  shown  as  held 
in  the  mouth  of  a  heron.  One  of  these  is  in  the  Dresden  Codex 
36b  (PI.  5,  fig.  3)  and  one  in  the  stone  carving  of  the  Temple  of 
the  Cross  at  Palenque  (PI.  15,  fig.  5).  Fish  are  often  repre- 
sented on  the  stone  carvings  as  feeding  upon  a  water  plant. 
This  is  seen  in  the  border  at  the  bottom  of  the  Lower  Chamber 
of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers  at  Chichen  Itza  (PL  5,  figs.  2,  4;  PI. 
6,  fig.  2) .  In  several  instances  at  Copan  fish  are  shown  as  form- 
ing the  sides  of  the  Great  Cycle  glyph  at  the  beginning  of  an 
Initial  Series  (PI.  6,  figs.  14-17).  It  has  often  been  suggested 
that  as  the  word  fish  in  Maya  is  kai  (usually  written  cay),  there 
may  be  some  phonetic  significance  here,  combining  the  fish, 
kai,  with  the  usually  drum-Hke  sign  for  stone,  tun,  making  kai 
tun  or  katun.  This  is  the  term  usually  given  not  to  the  Great 
Cycle  but  to  the  period  composed  of  twenty  tuns  and  is  probably 
derived  from  kai  meaning  twenty  and  tun,  a  stone. 

AMPHIBIA 

Frogs.  Figures  undoubtedly  representing  frogs  (Maya 
tmUs  or  uo)  or  toads  are  found  in  several  places  in  the  codices 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  309 

and  in  the  stone  carvings,  but  it  is  quite  impossible  to  refer  them 
definitely  to  any  of  the  numerous  species  occurring  in  Central 
America,  if,  indeed,  the  artists  had  any  one  species  in  mind.  In 
the  Tro-Cortesianus  frogs  are  not  uncommon.  In  31a  there  are 
four  (PL  7,  fig.  1)  with  water  coming  from  their  mouths.  They 
are  characterized  by  their  stout  tailless  bodies,  flattened  heads 
and  toothless  mouths.  In  lOld  (PI.  7,  figs.  2,  3)  there  are  two, 
the  first  painted  blue  with  spots  of  darker  blue  and  the  second 
white  and  represented  as  broken  in  two  in  the  middle.  The 
signs  of  death  above  the  latter  clearly  show  that  a  dead  animal 
is  indicated.  PL  7,  fig.  6,  shows  the  end  of  Altar  O  from  Ccpan 
on  which  a  frog  and  a  fish  are  pictured,  the  former  in  dorsal  view, 
the  latter  in  lateral  aspect.  The  pecuHar  pointed  snout  of 
this  frog  is  similar  to  that  of  the  frog  shown  in  PL  7,  fig.  7,  also 
in  dorsal  view.  A  somewhat  similar  creature  (PL  29,  fig.  6) 
we  have  included  and  though  it  may  represent  an  opossum  it 
has  little  to  distinguish  it  from  the  figures  of  frogs.* 

God  B  in  Tro-Cortesianus  12b  should  be  associated  with  the 
frog.  His  legs  are  those  of  a  frog  and  he  appears  as  if  swimming 
in  the  water.  Frog  in  Maya  is  Uo  which  is  also  the  name  of  the 
second  month  of  the  Maya  year.  The  first  day  of  this  month, 
according  to  Landa,  corresponds  to  August  5  of  our  year  and 
this  is  the  height  of  the  rainy  season  in  the  Maya  region.  The 
sign  for  Uo  does  not,  however,  resemblea  frog  in  any  way.  The 
frog  above  one  of  the  figures  in  the  Lower  Chamber  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Tigers  at  Chichen  Itza  (PL  7,  fig.  7)  has  clearly  some  rela- 
tion to  the  name  or  totem  of  the  warrior.  The  Nahua  custom 
is  seen  here. 

Toads  are  probably  intended  in  PL  7,  figs.  4,  5.  In  these 
the  great  breadth  of  the  head  and  mouth  together  with  the  short 
inflated  body  combine  to  produce  a  very  toad-like  appearance. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  they  represent  the  huge  marine  toad, 
Bufo  marinus,  common  from  southern  Mexico  to  Brazil  and  in 
the  West  Indies.  There  seems  to  be  no  distinction  in  the  treat- 
ment of  frogs  and  toads  in  the  codices. 

♦Attention  is  also  called  to  two  whistles  representing  frogs  in  the  Me- 
moirs  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  I,  No.  4  (Gordon,  1898),  PI.  9,  figs,  i,  j. 


310  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

Tree-toad  {Hyla  eximia).  Of  great  interest  are  the  figures 
in  Tro-Cortesianus  26a  and  b  (PL  8,  figs.  1,  3),  showing  a  god 
with  expanded  finger  tips. and  characterized  further  by  the 
presence  of  two  parallel  black  stripes  from  the  hinder  and  lower 
margins  of  the  eye  respectively.  The  knob-Hke  finger  tips  at 
once  suggest  one  of  the  tree-toads,  and  the  presence  of  the  two 
lines  seems  to  indicate  Hyla  eximia  as  the  species  represented. 
In  this  tree-toad  there  is  a  long  black  lateral  fine  running  pos- 
teriorly from  the  tympanum  and  above  it  a  shorter  hne  just  as 
in  the  drawings.  It  appears  to  be  a  common  species  in  the 
valley  of  Mexico  though  but  Uttle  seems  to  have  been  written 
of  its  habits.  At  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  it  repairs 
to  pools  of  water  to  breed  and  is  then  very  noticeable  from  its 
loud  voice.  No  doubt  its  importance  in  the  Maya  economy  was 
from  its  conspicuousness  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  period. 
This  fact  is  brought  out  more  strongly  when  we  consider  that 
these  gods  representing  the  tree-toad  are  associated  with  agri- 
culture and  the  sowing  of  grain  at  the  beginning  of  the  rainy 
season.  Forstemann  (1902,  p.  35)  identifies  these  figures  as 
god  F.  They  are  quite  unUke  the  usual  representation  of  this 
god  and  are  clearly  god  P  as  Schellhas  (1904,  p.  39)  indicates. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  two  black  fines  behind  the  eye 
are  also  seen  in  the  other  gods  shown  in  Tro-Cortesianus  26a 
and  b  although  the  knob-like  finger  tips  are  lacking.  The 
glyph  for  this  tree-toad  god  is  recognized  in  the  fifth  place  at 
the  top  of  the  same  page  (PL  8,  fig.  2)  by  the  same  two  black 
lines  under  and  behind  the  eye. 

REPTILIA 

Serpent.  It  would  be  impossible  in  the  present  paper  to 
enter  into  any  lengthy  discussion  of  the  use  of  the  serpent  (Maya 
kan)  in  Mexico  and  Central  America.  It  seems  to  be  one  of  the 
main  elements  in  the  reUgion  and  consequently  in  the  art  of  the 
Mayas  and  Mexican  peoples.  It  is  represented  again  and  again 
in  many  forms  and  varied  combinations.  It  underhes  the 
whole  general  trend  of  Maya  art.     The  serpent  is  often  associ- 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  311 

a  ted  with  feathers.  The  culture  hero  of  the  Nahuas,  Quetzal- 
coatl  (feathered  serpent)  corresponds  to  a  similar  god  among 
the  Mayas,  Kukulcan  (also  meaning  feathered  serpent).  The 
feathers  of  the  quetzal  are  the  ones  commonly  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  serpent. 

Any  attempt  at  identification  of  the  species  represented  is 
.beset  by  grave  difficulties  for  so  conventionahzed  have  the 
figures  often  become  that,  except  in  the  case  of  the  rattlesnake 
with  its  rattles,  there  are  no  characteristic  marks  by  which  the 
species  may  be  known.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  species 
used  for  artistic  purposes  would  be  those  that  are  most  note- 
worthy because  of  their  size,  coloring,  or  venomous  quahties. 
No  doubt  a  number  of  harmless  species  were  also  used  in  the 
religious  ceremonies.*  Such  may  be  those  used  as  hair  orna- 
ments in  many  of  the  figures  (PI.  8,  figs.  7-13,  15)  and  in  which 
no  indication  of  a  rattle  is  to  be  seen.  The  fierce  eye  of  these 
reptiles  is  shown  by  means  of  an  exaggerated  overhanging  brow 
•occasionally  embelhshed  by  recurved  crests  (PI.  8,  figs.  10,  11, 
13,  15).  These  crests  are  sometimes  shown  as  two  or  three 
stalked  knobs  (PI.  10,  fig.  7)  that  Stempell  was  misled  into 
identifying  as  the  eyes  of  snails.  Various  heads  of  snakes  usu- 
ally with  fangs  exposed  and  tongue  protruding  are  pictured  in 

*We  have  added  here  a  Spanish  description  from  the  Relacion  de  la 
-Civdad  de  Merida  (1900,  pp.  66,  67)  of  the  varieties  of  serpent  found  in  the 
country.  "Ay  una  suerte  de  culebra  que  llaman  los  naturales  taxinchan, 
de  una  tercia  de  largo,  que  para  andar  hinca  la  cabeza  en  el  suelo  y  da  un 
•salto,  y  de  aquella  suerte  dando  saltos  anda,  la  espalda  y  la  cabeza  tiene 
doraday  la  punta  dela  cola  estesecria  en  los  montes,y  quando  pica  a  alguna 
persona  le  hazereventar  sangre  por  todos  los  porosdel  cuerpo  que  parezeque 
suda  sangre  y  si  no  es  le  haze  algun  rremedio  muere  dentro  de  un  dia  natural 
y  para  la  mordedura  desta  culebra  tienen  por  rremedio  los  naturales  dar  a 
bever  ala  tal  persona  chile  y  hoja  de  piciete  molido  junto  y  desleido  en 
agua,  y  con  esto  guarecen  e  sanan — ay  biboras  muy  grandes  y  ponzofiosas 
de  una  vara  e  mas  de  largo,  y  tan  gruesa  como  un  brazo,  que  tienen  cas- 
cabeles  en  la  punta  de  la  cola,  y  si  muerden  matan  sino  se  rremedio  con 
brebedad,  y  tienen  los  naturales  por  rremedio  beber  chile  e  piciete  como 
para  la  mordedura  del  taxinchan — ay  otras  suertes  de  culebras  que  se 
llaman  cocob,  de  tres  y  cuatro  varas  de  largo  y  tan  gruesas  como  una  lanza 
.gineta,  que  tanbien  son  muy  ponzonosas,  y  al  que  pican  haze  salir  sangre 


312  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

PL  8,  figs.  4,  6;  PI.  9,  figs.  2,  4-6:  one  snake  with  a  spiny  back  is 
shown  in  PI.  8,  fig.  5,  but  obviously  it  represents  merely  the 
artist's  endeavor  to  present  as  terrifying  a  creature  as  possible. 

Various  types  of  rattlesnalies  are  shown  in  PL  9.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  rattle  is  of  course  the  characteristic,  and  this  portion 
alone  is  likewise  used,  in  one  case,  at  least,  as  a  glyph  (PL  9, 
fig.  7).  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  some  or  most  of  the 
snakes  in  which  no  rattles  appear,  are  nevertheless  intended  for 
rattlers.  It  may  have  been  that  the  figures  were  so  well  under- 
stood that  the  addition  of  rattles  in  the  drawings  was  quite  un- 
necessary. This,  however,  is  quite  conjectural.  The  species 
of  rattlesnake  is  probably  Crotalus  hasiliscus  or  C.  terrificus  of 
southern  Mexico  and  adjacent  regions,  not  C.  horridus  or  ada- 
manteus  as  supposed  by  Stempell  since  these  two  species  are 
confined  to  the  United  States.  Among  the  figures  shown  on 
PL  9,  it  is  noteworthy  that  five  of  the  rattlesnakes  show  no 
fangs.  Some  are  spotted,  but  in  a  wholly  arbitrary  manner. 
Three  are  unmarked.  One  is  shown  coiled  about  the  base 
of  a  tree  (PL  9,  fig.  5),  another  coiled  ready  to  strike  though 
the  rattle  is  pictured  trailing  on  the  ground  instead  of  being 
held  erect  in  the  center  of  the  coil  as  usually  is  done  (PL  9,. 
fig.  9).  A  rattlesnake  is  shown  held  in  the  hand  of  a  man 
in  PL  9,  fig.  8. 

In  PL  10,  fig.  1,  is  shown  a  rattle-less  snake  with  promi- 
nent fang,  coiled  about  the  top  of  an  altar  which  may  repre- 
sent a  tree  or  bush.  From  the  latter  fact,  it  might  be 
concluded   that   it  was   a   tree-  or    bush-inhabiting    species^ 

por  todo  el  cuerpo  y  por  los  ojos,  como  el  taxinchan,  .  .  ,  procuraban  guare- 
cerse  desta  ponzona  con  juros  y  encantamentos,  que  avia  grandes  en 
cantadores  y  tenian  sus  libros  para  conjurarlas  y  encantarlas,  y  estos  en- 
cantadores,  con  pocas  palabras  que  dezian,  encantaban  y  amansaban  las 
culebras  ponzoSosas,  las  cojian  y  tomaban  con  las  manos  sin  que  les  hiziese 
mal  ninguno — tanbien  ay  culebras  bobas  sin  ponzonas,  de  dos  varas  y  mas 
de  largo  y  tan  gruesas  como  el  brazo,y  suelen  ponerse  sobre  arboles  juntos 
alos  caminos,  y  quando  pasa  alguna  persona  se  deja  caer  encima  y  se  le  en- 
ros^a  y  rebuelve  al  cuerpo  y  a  la  garganta,  y  apretando  le  procura  ahogarl& 
y  matarle,  a  sucedido  matar  algunos  yndios  cagadores  yendo  descuidados — • 
tanbien  tienen  estas  culebras  distinto  natural  para  comer  y  sustentarse." 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  313 

possibly  the  deadly  '' bush-master''  {Lachesis  lanceolatus) , 
Other  figures  (PL  10,  figs.  3,  7;  PL  11,  figs.  1,  2)  are  intro- 
duced here  as  examples  of  the  curious  head  ornamentation 
frequently  found  in  the  drawings.  The  two  first  are  merely 
serpents  with  the  jaws  extended  to  the  utmost,  and  with  a 
characteristic  head  decoration.  The  last  is  provided  with  an 
elaborate  crest.  The  size  and  markings  of  the  two  serpents 
shown  in  PL  11,  as  well  as  their  want  of  rattles  suggest  that 
they  may  represent  some  species  of  large  Boidae  as  Loxocemus 
bicolor  or  Boa  (sp?). 

After  having  commented  upon  the  various  serpents  occur- 
ring in  the  codices  and  in  several  other  places,  we  will 
now  take  up  the  manner  and  connection  in  which  the 
various  figures  occur.  We  shall  pass  over  completely  the  use  of 
the  ''  serpent  column "  at  Chichen  Itza,  the  importance  of 
the  serpent  motive  in  the  development  of  the  masked  panel 
as  worked  out  by  Spinden,  and  the  countless  representations 
of  the  plumed  serpent  in  the  whole  field  of  Maya  design  and 
decoration.  In  the  single  Temple  of  the  Tigers  at  Chichen 
Itza,  the  feathered  serpent  occurs  in  the  round  as  a  column 
decoration  supporting  the  portico,  as  carved  on  the  wooden 
lintel  at  the  entrance  to  the  Painted  Chamber,  again  and 
again  on  the  frescoes  of  this  room,*  in  the  Lower  Chamber 
as  dividing  the  bas-relief  into  zones  or  panels,  and,  finally, 
as  the  center  of  the  whole  composition  of  this  bas-relief. 
It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  it  will  be  necessary  in  a  short 
paper,  to  limit  ourselves  to  the  representations  of  the  serpent 
in  the  Maya  codices. 

The  serpent  is  most  frequently  associated  with  god  B, 
Schellhas  (1904,  p.  17),  Fewkes  (1894),  Forstemann  (1906), 
and  Thomas  (1882),  seem  to  agree  that  god  B  is  to  be  iden- 
tified as  Kukulcan,  the  most  important  of  the  deities  of  the 
Mayas  and,  as  pointed  out  before,  appearing  in  the  Nahua 
mythology,  as  Quetzalcoail,  and  in  the  Quiche  myths  as 
Gucumatz.     It  was  also  noted  that  the  name  means  both  in 

*  PL  9,  figs.  5,  9,  show  drawings  of  the  rattlesnake  which  occur  on  the 
fresco. 


314  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

Maya  and  in  Nahuatl,  the  "  feathered  serpent "  or  the  ''  bird  ser- 
pent." Other  authorities  consider  god  B  as  Itzamna,  another 
of  the  main  gods  of  the  Mayas.  Seler  interprets  god  B  as 
the  counterpart  of  the  Nahua  rain  god,  Tlaloc.  It  is  certain 
that  when  god  B  and  the  serpent  are  associated  together 
water  and  rain  are  usually  indicated.  God  H,  ''the  Chicchan 
god,"  also  has  some  relation  to  the  serpent.  As  pointed  out 
by  Schellhas  (1904,  pp.  28-30),  this  god  often  appears  char- 
acterized by  a  skin-spot  or  a  scale  of  the  serpent  on  his  temple 
of  the  same  shape  as  the  hieroglyph  of  the  day  Chicchan 
(serpent).  The  glyph  belonging  to  this  deity  also  shows 
the  Chicchan  sign  as  its  distinguishing  mark.  Similar  signs 
appear  on  the  body  of  the  serpent  in  many  places,  as  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  30a  (PL  11,  fig.  1). 

We  have  already  noted  that  the  serpent,  god  B ,  and  water 
are  frequently  shown  together,  so  the  serpent  also  appears 
associated  with  water  and  rain,  when  no  figure  of  god  B  is 
present.  From  this  connection,  it  can  be  argued  that 
there  is  some  relation  between  the  serpent  and  the  coming 
of  the  rains.  These  facts  would  give  strength  to  the  theory 
that  god  B  is  to  be  identified  as  a  rain  god.  In  Dresden 
33a,  35a,  god  B  is  seated  on  the  open  jaws  of  a  serpent,  while 
the  body  of  the  reptile  encloses  a  blue  field  evidently  signi- 
fying water.  The  number  nineteen  appears  on  this  blue 
color.  It  will  be  noted  that  there  are  nineteen  spots  on  the 
serpents  in  PL  11,  figs.  1,  2.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  3a-6a, 
corresponding  scenes  seem  to  be  shown.  The  body  of  the 
serpent  encloses  water,  and  here  the  number  eighteen  appears 
in  each  case.  God  B  occurs  always  in  front  of  the  serpent 
and  his  head  appears  as  the  head  of  the  reptile  in  the  first 
instance.  In  Dresden  35a,  36a,  the  head  of  god  B  is  pictured 
as  the  head  of  the  serpent  in  the  midst  of  the  water.  In 
Dresden  37b  (PL  10,  fig.  8),  B  is  holding  a  snake  in  the  water. 

Water  appears  in  connection  with  the  serpent  and  god  B 
in  many  places  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus.  In  9,  god  B  is  pictured 
pouring  water  from  a  jar,  a  common  method  of  showing 
the  idea  of  rain  in  the  codices.     In  12b,  B  again  is  shown 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE    MAYA  CODICES  315 

perhaps  representing  a  frog,  and  behind  him  a  serpent.  The 
reptiles  in  13b-18b,  are  all  associated  with  the  idea  of  rain, 
the  turtle  and  frog  also  appearing  in  this  section.  In  30a 
(PI.  11,  fig.  1),  god  B  and  a  female  figure  are  both  pouring 
water  from  a  jar,  as  they  stand  on  the  body  of  a  serpent.  In 
32a,  the  black  god  (L)  is  seen  in  the  rain,  and  a  serpent  is 
near, while  in  32b  and  33b  (PL  9,  fig.  1),  the  serpent  forms 
the  belt  of  god  L,  and  a  female  figure  and  water  are  seen  in 
both  cases.  The  blue  color  of  the  snake  and  of  god  B  in  31b 
(PI.  11,  fig.  2)  may  also  suggest  water. 

God  B  also  occurs  in  connection  with  the  serpent  in  Dres- 
den 42a  (PL  8,  fig.  14),  where  the  god  is  seated  on  the  reptile, 
in  Tro-Cortesianus,  10  b,  where  the  head  of  the  same  god  is  the 
head  of  the  snake,  and  in  Tro-Cortesianus  19a,  where  god  B 
again  and  god  A  are  each  seated  on  the  open  jaws  of  a  serpent. 

The  astronomical  role  of  the  serpent  is  noted  in  Dresden 
56b,  57b  (PL  10,  fig.  3),  Tro-Cortesianus  5b,  12b,  15b,  and 
67b,  where  the  snake  is  shown  in  connection  with  a  line  of 
constellation  signs,  the  kin  or  sun  sign  prominent  in  most 
of  the  drawings.  In  the  "battle  of  the  constellations"  in 
Dresden  60,  the  serpent  appears  forming  a  sort  of  altar,  the 
seat  of  a  figure  which  is  supported  by  another  figure.  A 
serpent  head  also  appears  at  the  foot  of  the  latter  figure. 

That  the  serpent  appears  associated  with  the  idea  of  time 
seems  clear  from  the  fact  of  the  long  number  series  in  Dresden 
61,  62  (PL  10,  fig.  7),  and  69,  which  are  shown  in  the  spaces 
made  by  the  winding  of  the  serpents'  bodies.  In  Tro-Cor- 
tesianus 13a-16a,  four  large  reptiles  appear  in  connection 
with  the  lines  of  day  signs. 

The  study  of  the  serpent  used  as  a  head-dress  is  inter- 
•esting.  As  noted  previously,  quite  a  different  kind  of  snake 
seems  to  be  represented  when  used  in  this  connection.  Two 
•other  points  come  out  in  this  investigation,  namely,  that 
it  is  only  with  female  figures  that  the  serpent  is  employed 
3ls  a  head-dress,  and  in  far  the  greater  number  of  cases  the 
women  are  shown,  either  in  the  act  of  offering  something, 
or  of  pouring  water  from  a  jar.     The  usual  type  of  serpent 


316  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

head-dress  is  seen  in  Dresden  9c  (PL  8,  fig.  11),  15b  (PL  8,. 
fig.  12),  18a  (PL  8,  fi.g.  13),  22b  (PL  8,  fig.  10),  and  23b  (PL  8, 
fig.  8).  In  the  first  case,  the  offering  is  a  jicara  or  gourd  of 
some  sacred  drink  (baltse?),  in  the  second  and  third  examples,. 
the  dish  is  clearly  shown,  but  the  offering  is  unidentifiable, 
in  the  fourth  case,  maize  (a  Kan  sign),  and  in  the  last,  a  fish 
resting  on  a  dish.  In  Dresden  20a  (PL  8,  fig.  15),  a  woman 
with  serpent  head-dress  is  seen  associated  with  the  Moan- 
headed  figure,  possibly  in  the  act  of  offering  it  as  a  sacrifice. 

In  Dresden  39b  (PL  8,  fig.  7),  43b  (PL  8,  fig.  9),  and  70,. 
a  similar  serpent  head-dress  is  shown  on  a  female  figure  in 
the  act  of  pouring  water  from  a  jar.  In  Tro-Cortesianus,, 
the  serpent  head-dresses  differ  in  type  only,  and  in  two  out 
of  the  four  cases  where  they  appear,  water  is  shown  flowing, 
from  the  breasts  (30b)  of  the  female  figure  or  from  the  mouth 
(32b).  The  woman  thus  represented  in  connection  withi 
the  water  is  god  I,  the  water  goddess  of  Schellhas.  She  is,. 
as  he  notes  (1904,  p.  31)  usually  the  figure  of  an  old  woman. 
^'Evidently,  we  have  here  the  personification  oi  water  in  its 
quality  of  destroyer,  a  goddess  of  floods  and  cloud-bursts."' 
We  are  not  at  all  sure  that  we  have  here  a  distinct  god  as  similar 
female  figures  with  serpent  head-dresses  occur  frequently  in 
the  Dresden  Codex  with  no  suggestion  of  water.  The  failure 
to  find  any  distinct  glyph  for  this  goddess  seems  to  strengthen 
the  view  of  not  considering  her  as  a  separate  deity.  Finally, 
in  our  consideration  of  head-dresses,  the  serpent  is  to  be  seen 
in  Tro-Cortesianus  79c  on  the  head  of  the  first  woman  wha 
is  weaving.  Possibly,  a  conventionalized  serpent  forms  the 
head  covering  of  the  second  figure  who  is  represented  as  dead. 

The  serpent  in  Dresden  26c-28c  (PL  10,  fig.  1)  coiled 
around  the  altar  which  rises  from  a  Tun  sign  is  not  easily 
explained.  In  25c,  the  altar  is  replaced  by  god  B  and  in 
the  former  cases,  the  reptiles  may  stand  for  this  god  with 
whom  they  are  often  associated.*     The  serpent  seems  closely 

*  The  reader  is  also  referred  to  the  bas-relief  of  the  Lower  Chamber  of 
the  Temple  of  the  Tigers  at  Chichen  Itza  where  a  serpent  is  shown  behind 
a  low  altar. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  317 

oonnected  with  the  idea  of  offerings  as  the  body  of  a  snake 
is  shown  in  several  instances  as  the  support  of  the  jar  con- 
taining the  various  gifts  in  Tro-Cortesianus  34a,  34b,  35a,  35b, 
36a,  36b,  and  possibly  52c  (PL  9,  fig.  3). 

Finally  the  serpent  is  to  be  noted  in  a  number  of  miscel- 
laneous connections:  —  in  Dresden  36b  (PL  19,  fig.  11),  as 
being  attacked  by  a  black  vulture,*  in  Tro-Cortesianus  40b 
(PL  9,  fig.  4)  a  rattlesnake  is  biting  the  foot  of  one  of  the 
hunters,  and  in  Tro-Cortesianus  66b,  where  the  serpent  has 
a  human  head  and  arm  coming  from  its  open  jaws.  This 
is  a  very  frequent  method  of  representing  the  serpent  in  the 
Maya  stone  carvings.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  60c,  lOOd  (PL  9, 
fig.  8),  twice,  106a,  and  111b,  the  rattlesnake  is  shown  as  a 
sprinkler  for  the  holy  water  in  the  hand  (in  the  first,  second 
and  fourth  examples)  of  god  D.  Landa  (1864,  p.  150)  f 
describes  in  the  ceremony  of  the  baptism  of  children,  that 
the  leader  of  the  rite  wore  on  his  head  a  kind  of  mitre  em- 
broidered with  plumage  in  some  manner  and  in  his  hand  a 
small  holy -water  sprinkler  of  wood,  carved  skillfully,  of  which 
the  filaments  were  the  tails  of  serpents,  similar  to  serpents 
with  rattles. 

In  spite  of  the  importance  of  the  serpent  in  the  manu- 
scripts and  stone  carvings,  it  never  seems  to  appear  as  a 
separate  deity.  With  one  exception,  no  glyph  is  to  be  found 
representing  this  reptile  as  is  the  case  with  many  of  the 
animals.  Tro-Cortesianus  106c  (PL  9,  fig.  7)  is  this  exception 
showing  the  rattles  of  a  snake  which  are  found  in  the  line  of 
glyphs  above  two  of  the  bees.  No  serpent  appears  in  the 
picture. 

The  Nahuatl  day,  Couatl,  has  the  signification  serpent, 
as  suggested  before,  in  discussing  the  meaning  of  the  name 
Quetzalcoatl  or  Quetzalcouatl.     This  day  sign  occurs  through- 

*  Forstemann  (1906,  p.  15)  agrees  with  Schellhas  that  this  may  be  a 
rebus  for  the  name  Quetzalcoatl  or  Kukulcan.  As  the  bird  is  a  vulture 
rather  than  a  quetzal  this  could  hardly  be  the  case. 

t  "Y  con  isopo  en  el  mano  de  un  palo  corto  muy  labrado,y  por  barbas 
o  pelos  del  isopo  ciertas  colas  de  unas  culebras  que  soncomo  caxcavales." 


318  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

out  the  Mexican  manuscripts  as  the  head  of  a  serpent  (PI.  8,, 
figs.  4,  6;  PI.  9,  fig.  2;  PL  10,  figs.  2,  4-6). 

Iguana.  Of  the  lizards  represented,  the  iguana  (Maya. 
hu)  is  the  most  striking,  and  is  readily  identified  on  account 
of  the  prominent  spines  along  the  back.  As  noted  by  Stem- 
pell,  there  are  two  or  three  species  of  large  lizards  in  Central 
America  commonly  called  iguana,  and  it  is  probable  that 
the  one  here  considered  is  the  Ctenosaura  acanthura  of  Yuca- 
tan or  Iguana  tuberculata  of  South  and  Central  America. 

In  the  manuscripts  the  iguana  is  almost  exclusively  repre- 
sented as  an  offering  (PI.  12,  figs.  1-6).  It  is  usually  found 
on  top  of  the  Kan  sign,  meaning  maize  or  bread,*  and  this, 
in  turn,  resting  in  a  bowl  (PI.  12,  figs.  3,  4,  6).  Landa  (1864, 
p.  230)  t  gives  a  pleasing  confirmation  of  this  offering  of  an. 
iguana  with  bread.  It  is  possible  that  the  object  shown  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  12b  (PL  12,  fig.  13)  may  be  the  convention- 
alized representation  of  this  lizard.  It  must  be  admitted 
that  this  interpretation  is  very  doubtful.  The  triangular 
points  suggest  the  lizard,  but  the  pointed  character  of  the 
sign  as  a  whole  in  no  way  resembles  the  back  of  this  reptile. 
It  is  found  associated  with  three  Kan  signs.  In  Cakchiquel, 
a  dialect  of  the  Maya  stock,  K'an,  according  to  Guzman 
and  Brinton  (1893,  p.  24)  is  the  name  applied  to  the  female 
of  the  iguana  or  the  lizard,  and  this  is  believed  to  be  the 
original  sense  of  the  Maya  term.  It  may  also  be  noted  that 
the  Nahua  day  sign  Cuetzpalin,  meaning  lizard,  is  the  one 
which  corresponds  with  the  Maya  day  Kan.  PL  12,  figs.  10, 
12,  14,  show  representations  of  the  day  corresponding  to 
Cuetzpalin  in  the  Aubin  and  Nuttall  codices.  These  show 
a  stout  spineless  species  with  a  short  thick  tail  and  may  be 

*  Brinton  (1893,  p.  25)  notes  that  the  equivalent  of  Kan  in  the 
Nahuatl  of  Miztitlan  is  xilotl  which  means  ear  of  corn.  This  seems  to 
show  the  correctness  of  the  usual  identification  of  the  Kan  sign  as  mean- 
ing maize  or  bread  (pan). 

t  "  Y  les  ofrecian  dos  pellas  de  una  leche  o  resina  de  un  arbol  que  llaman 
kik,  para  quemar  y  ciertas  iguanas  y  pan  y  una  mitra  y  un  manojo  de 
flores  y  una  piedra  preciosa  de  las  suyas.' ' 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  319 

the  Gila  monster  (Heloderma  horridum),  a  large  and  some- 
what poisonous  species  having  much  these  proportions. 

Further  offerings  are  shown  in  PL  12,  figs.  7,  8.  These 
seem  to  be  the  heads  and  forefeet  of  lizards,  but,  from  the 
shape  of  the  head,  perhaps  not  of  iguanas. 

In  Stela  D  of  Copan,  the  Uinal  period  glyph  seems  to  be 
represented  by  a  spineless  lizard  covered  with  scales  (PL  12^ 
fig.  9).  Frog-like  characteristics  also  appear.  This  stone 
monument  is  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  the  glyphs  are 
all  more  or  less  realistic  representations  of  human  and  animal 
forms.  It  should  be  noted  that  there  certainly  seems  to  be 
some  connection  between  the  Uinal  period  glyph  and  the 
lizard.  PL  13,  fig.  9,  represents  a  Uinal  glyph  from  the 
Temple  of  the  Foliated  Cross  at  Palenque  and  the  lizard 
form  is  clearly  seen  in  the  eyebrow  and  the  upper  jaw.  Com- 
pare also  PL  13,  fig.  11,  and  PL  28,  fig.  3.  A  collection  of 
glyphs  of  this  period  shows  clearly  the  lizard-like  character 
of  the  face. 

That  some  connection  existed  between  the  lizard  and  the 
idea  of  rain  seems  clear  from  a  reference  in  the  Relacion  de 
la  Ciudad  de  Merida  (1900,  p.  51).*  Finally  the  lizard  is 
shown  in  Dresden  3a  (PL  12,  fig.  11)  directly  in  front  of  god  H 
beside  the  scene  of  human  sacrifice. 

Crocodile.  The  text  figure  (1)  shows  a  dorsal  view  of 
a  crocodile  (Maya,  ayin)  carved  on  the  top  of  Altar  T  at 
Copan.  The  general  form  is  considerably  conventionalized 
with  limbs  elongated  and  provided  with  human  hands  and 
long  toes.  The  protuberances  of  the  back  are  roughly 
shown  by  oval  markings,  which  are  here  continued  on  the 
legs.  The  large  scales  of  the  ventral  surfaces  also  appear 
at  the  sides  of  the  body,  and  along  the  posterior  edges  of 
the  lim^bs.  The  tail  is  shortened  and  bifurcate.  The  most 
interesting  portion,  however,  is  the  head.  The  snout  is 
distinctly  pinched  in  at  the  base,  though  broadened  again 
distally.     In  the  alligator  the  snout  is  broad  and  tapers  but 

*  "  Y  pintaban  un  largarto  que  significaba  el  Diluvio — y  la  tierra  e 
sobre  este  largarto  hazian  un  gran  monton  de  lena  y  ponianle  fuego.' ' 


320 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 


little.  As  in  other  representations  of  the  crocodile,  the  lower 
jaw  does  not  appear,  and  even  in  this  dorsal  view  the  artist 
seems  to  have  deemed  it  necessary  to  show  the  row  of  teeth 
as  if  in  side  view,  or  as  though  they  projected  laterally  from 
the  mouth.  What  may  represent  ears  or  ear  plugs  are  shown 
one  on  each  side  behind  the  eyes.  There  are  few  other  ex- 
amples of  full  drawings  of  the  crocodile  in  the  Maya  writings. 


Fig.  1. 
TOP  OF  ALTAR.  T. 


COPAN. 


Dresden  74  shows  an  animal  which  has  been  considered  to 
represent  a  crocodile  or  alligator  but  it  seems  to  have 
more  of  the  characteristics  of  a  lizard. 

Figures  of  a  crocodile  {Crocodilus  amencanus)  are  frequent 
in  the  Nuttall  Codex,  where  there  is  one  large  figure  of  the 
entire  animal  (PL  13,  fig.  8),  making  its  way  along  under 
water.     It  is  shown  with  numerous  dorsal  spines,  a  long  tail, 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  321 

and  powerful  claws.  Curiously,  however,  it  has  no  lower 
jaw  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  numerous  glyphs  representing 
the  head  of  the  animal.  This  is  so  pronounced  a  charac- 
teristic, that  it  may  be  doubted  if  the  open-mouthed  head 
and  the  single  limb  shown  in  PL  13,  fig.  2,  really  picture  the 
same  animal,  though  otherwise  apparently  referable  to  the 
crocodile.  In  the  various  glyphs  showing  the  head  of  this 
species,  the  prominent,  elongate  eyebrow  and  the  absence 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  noteworthy  points,  while  the  teeth  may 
vary  in  number  from  three  to  six. 

The  glyphs  (PL  13,  figs.  1,  3-7)  represent  the  Nahua  day 
sign  Cipactli  corresponding  to  the  Maya  day  Imix.  In  the 
band  of  constellation  signs  in  Dresden  52b  (PL  13,  fig.  10), 
there  occurs  a  single  figure  with  a  long  curled  eyebrow  and 
lacking  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  upper  jaw  three  teeth  are 
indicated.  A  comparison  of  this  figure  with  the  glyphs  in 
the  Nuttall  Codex  seems  to  leave  little  doubt  that  it  represents 
a  crocodile.  This  is  the  sign  which  Forstemann  (1906,  p. 
206)  interprets  as  standing  for  Saturn.  PL  13,  fig.  12,  is 
certainly  the  same  sign  as  it  stands  in  relatively  the  same 
position  in  the  constellation  band  on  Dresden  53a.  It  repre- 
sents the  highly  conventionalized  head  of  a  crocodile.  On 
Stela  10  from  Piedras  Negras  (Maler,  1901-1903,  PL  19)  the 
same  glyph  is  seen. 

The  range  of  the  alligator  in  North  America  does  not 
extend  to  Yucatan,  hence  the  crocodile,  which  does  occur 
there,  is  taken  as  the  original  of  all  these  figures.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  latter  that  would  distinguish  it  from  the  alli- 
gator. 

Turtles.  Representations  of  the  turtle  (Maya,  ak)  are 
not  uncommon  among  the  Mayas.  At  Uxmal  there  is  a  ruined 
building  called  Casa  de  las  Tortugas  on  which  at  intervals 
around  the  cornice  there  are  carvings  of  turtles.  Turtles 
of  at  least  two  species  occur  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus.  With  one 
exception,  they  seem  to  be  limited  to  this  codex.  That  shown 
on  PL  14,  figs.  1-3,  5,  is  a  large  species  with  the  dorsal  scutes 
represented  by  large  diamond-shaped  pieces.  There  is  little 
IV.  21 


322  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

that  might  be  considered  distinctive  about  these  turtles^ 
although  one  (PI.  14,  fig.  5)  has  the  anterior  paddles  much 
larger  than  the  posterior,  indicating  a  sea  turtle.  What  is 
doubtless  the  same  turtle  is  pictured  in  several  places  in  the 
Nuttall  Codex.  In  one  of  the  figures  in  the  latter  manuscript,, 
the  shell  is  shown  apparently  in  use  as  a  shield  (PI.  14,  fig.  4) . 
This  would  indicate  one  of  the  large  sea  turtles,  and  thera 
is  not  much  doubt  that  either  the  Loggerhead  turtle  {Thalas- 
sochelys  cephalo)  or  the^Hawksbill  (Chelone  imhricata)  is 
here  intended. 

Quite  another  species  is  that  shown  in  PI.  14,  fig.  6.  That 
this  is  a  freshwater  turtle  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  parasitic- 
leeches  that  are  noted  fastened  by  their  round  sucking-discs 
to  the  sides  of  its  body.  The  long  neck,  pointed  snout,  and 
apparent  limitation  of  the  dorsal  spinous  scutes  to  the  central 
area  of  the  back  may  indicate  the  snapping  turtle  (Chelydra 
serpentina)  or  possibly -a  species  of  the  genus  Cinosternum 
(probably  C.  leucostomum) .  It  is  hardly  likely  that  it  is  one 
of  the  true  soft-shelled  turtles  (Trionyx),  as  the  range  of  that 
genus  is  not  known  to  include  Mexico.  The  turtle  from 
Nuttall  43  (PI.  14,  fig.  11)  may  belong  to  the  same  species  as 
its  scutes  seem  rather  few,  or  it  may  be  that  the  view  shown 
here  is  of  the  ventral  side  and  that  the  scales  indicate  the^ 
small  plastron  of  one  of  the  sea  turtles. 

The  turtle  appears  alone  as  one  of  the  figures  in  the 
tonalamatl  in  several  cases  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus,  13a,  17a 
(PL  14,  fig.  3),  72b  (PL  14,  fig.  6).  It  is  found  associated 
with  the  toad  appearing  in  the  rain  in  Tro-Cortesianus  17b 
(PL  14,  fig.  2)  and  alone  in  the  rain  in  13a.  In  Tro-Cortesia- 
nus 81c  (PL  14,  fig.  5),  it  appears  in  front  of  an  unidentifiable 
god. 

Schellhas  has  called  the  turtle  an  animal  symbolical  of 
the  lightning  basing  his  opinion,  as  Brinton  (1895,  p.  74)  tells 
us,  on  Dresden  40b  where  a  human  figure  with  animal  head 
is  holding  two  torches  in  his  hands.  This  figure  does  not 
seem  to  us  to  represent  a  turtle,  as  is  commonly  supposed, 
but  a  parrot ,^as  will  be  pointed  out  later  (p.  343).      Forste- 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE     MAYA  CODICES  323 

mann  (1902,  p.  27)  identifies  the  turtle  with  the  summer  sol- 
stice, as  has  been  noted  before,  explaining  that  the  animal 
is  slow  of  motion,  and  is  taken  to  represent  the  time  when 
the  sun  seems  to  stand  still.  He  bases  his  theory  (1904, 
p.  423)  in  part  on  the  fact  that  the  sign  for  the  Maya  month 
Kayab,  which  is  the  month  in  which  the  summer  solstice 
occurs,  shows  the  face  of  the  turtle  (PI.  14,  fig.  10).  This 
undoubtedly  is  correct,  but  he  seems  to  us  wrong  in  classing 
as  turtles  the  figure  in  Dresden  40b  (PL  25,  fig.  1)  with  its 
accompanying  glyph  (PI.  25,  fig.  6). 

The  turtle  is  found  in  connection  with  two  sun  {kivi) 
signs  beneath -a  constellation  band  in  Tro-Cortesianus  71a. 
Resting  upon  his  body  are  three  Cauac  signs.  The  single 
representation  of  the  turtle  in  the  Dresden  Codex  is  on  page 
49  (PI.  14,  fig.  12)  where  a  god  is  pictured  with  a  turtle's 
head.  The  heavy  sharp  beak  indicates  that  he  represents 
one  of  the  sea  turtles  previously  mentioned.  He  is  shown 
transfixed  by  a  spear  and  corresponds  to  the  other  figures  in 
the  lower  parts  of  pp.  46-50.  These  all  have  some  connection 
with  the  Venus  period  which  is  considered  in  these  pages.* 

A  number  of  glyphs  representing  the  turtle  are  found 
throughout  the  codices  (PI.  14,  figs.  7-10).  They  are  all 
characterized  by  the  heavy  beak.  It  may  be  noted  that 
these  glyphs  are  virtually  the  same  as  the  sign  for  the  first 
a  in  Landa's  alphabet.  As  the  turtle  is  called  ak  or  aak  in 
Maya,  the  reason  is  clear  for  the  selection  of  this  sign  for  an  a 
sound.  These  turtle  glyphs  often  occur  alone;  one,  however, 
(PI.  14,  fig.  7)  is  found  in  connection  with  the  swimming 
turtle  in  Tro-Cortesianus  17a  (PI.  14,  fig.  3) .  Figs.  7-9  agree 
in  having  the  small  scrolls  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  eye. 
The  head  shown  in  PI.  14,  fig.  10,  has  quite  a  different  eye, 
though  otherwise  similar.  Its  resemblance  to  the  glyph  on 
PI.  25,  fig.  9,  is  marked  and  suggests  the  parrot.  Schellhas 
(1904,  p.  44)  gives  in  his  fig.  64,  a  glyph  for  the  turtle  which 
seems  clearly  to  be  a  glyph  for  the  parrot  (PL  25,  fig.  7). 

*  See  in  this  connection  Seler ,  1904. 


324  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

AVES 

Herons  (Ardea  herodias;  Hydranassa  tricolor  ruficollis). 
Only  a  few  water  birds  are  shown  in  the  Maya  works.  Several 
are  found,  however,  that  seem  to  picture  herons  (PL  15,  figs. 
1-7).  The  best  of  these  (fig.  5),  a  carving  from  the  west 
side  panel  of  the  Temple  of  the  Cross  at  Palenque  shows  a 
crested  heron  standing  on  one  foot  and  holding  in  its  bill  a 
fish.  A  second  figure  (PI.  15,  fig.  1)  is  from  the  stucco  orna- 
ment from  the  Palace,  House  B,  at  Palenque.  It  is  less 
carefully  executed,  but  seems  to  be  a  long-necked  bird  with 
a  crest  and  outspread  wings  curiously  conventionalized. 
In  the  Nuttall  Codex  there  is  another  unmistakable  heron 
(PI.  15,  fig.  4)  with  the  same  general  characteristics,  though 
the  crest  is  less  prominent,  here  represented  as  a  series  of 
erectile  feathers  separated  at  their  tips.  This  elongation 
of  the  crest  seems  to  be  carried  still  farther*  in  what  seems 
to  be  the  head  and  neck  of  a  heron  from  Dresden  37b  (PI.  15, 
fig.  3)  with  erectile  feathers  at  intervals  along  its  length. 

The  heron  is  seldom  employed  as  a  head-dress.  In  the 
Lower  Chamber  of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers  at  Chichen  Itza, 
one  of  the  warriors  wears  a  bird  head-dress  (PL  15,  fig.  2), 
which  from  the  length  of  the  bill  is  probably  made  from  a 
heron's  head,  though  the  crest  seems  greatly  exaggerated. 
The  bas-relief  on  which  this  is  found  is  strongly  Nahua  in 
feeling  and  execution.  This  head  covering  may  indicate, 
according  to  the  Nahua  fashion,  the  tribe  to  which  the  warrior 
belongs.  Again  in  Dresden  36a  (PL  15,  fig.  7),  a  man  is 
shown  wearing  as  a  head-dress  the  head  and  neck  of  a  heron 
that  holds  in  its  bill  a  fish.  This  head  resembles  very  closely 
that  of  the  heron  in^  fig.  1.  What  appears  to  be  a  similar 
head  is  shown  in  PL  15,  fig.  6.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  heron  with  a  fish  (PL  15,  fig.  5)  from  Palenque  also  forms 
a  part  of  a  complicated  head-dress. 

It  is,  of  course,  uncertain  to  which  of  the  several  herons 
occurring  in  Central  America  these  representations  refer. 
Possibly  the  Great  Blue  heron  (Ardea  herodias)  or  the  Louisi- 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  325 

ana  heron  (Hydranassa  tricolor  ruficollis)  is  intended.  It 
seems  not  unlikely  also,  that  one  of  the  white  egrets  may  be 
shown  as  their  crests  are  fairly  conspicuous. 

Frigate-bird  (Fregata  aquila).  We  have  included  here 
two  figures  (PI.  15,  figs.  8,  9)  that  undoubtedly  represent  a 
single  species  of  bird.  It  is  characterized  by  a  deeply  forked 
tail  and  long  beak,  which  has  part  way  on  its  length,  a  cir- 
cular object  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  dots.  It  seems  still 
problematical  what  this  object  may  be.  In  one  figure  (fig.  9), 
the  beak  is  strongly  hooked,  in  the  other  (fig.  8)  it  is  straight, 
but  as  the  latter  is  plainly  a  much  more  carelessly  made 
drawing,  we  may  infer  that  the  hooked  bill  is  more  nearly 
correct.  This  would  exclude  the  Terns  (Sterna),  to  which 
Stempell  has  referred  the  figures.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  frigate-bird  {Fregata  aquila)  is  the  species  intended,  as 
this  is  not  only  a  large  conspicuous  form  on  these  coasts, 
but  it  has  a  long  and  strongly  hooked  beak  and  forked  tail. 
The  length  of  the  beak  would  probably  exclude  from  con- 
sideration, the  swallow-tailed  kite  that  also  occurs  in  the 
region. 

Both  these  birds  are  pictured,  evidently  as  an  offering 
or  sacrifice.  It  is  very  seldom  that  the  whole  bird  is  repre- 
sented in  this  connection,  and  still  more  infrequent  to  find 
anything  but  the  turkey,  which  is  the  usual  bird  of  sacrifice. 
The  figure  from  the  Dresden  Codex  (PI.  15,  fig.  9)  rests  upon 
the  usual  bowl  or  jar,  that  from  the  Tro-Cortesianus  (PI.  15, 
fig.  8)  is  pictured  upon  a  grotesque  animal  head,  three  Kan 
signs  and  these  upon  the  jar. 

In  the  Tro-Cortesianus  20c,  21c,  there  occur  several 
representations  of  man-like  forms  with  very  peculiar  heads. 
The  latter  are  each  provided  with  a  beak-like  projection,  on 
which  appears  the  circle  surrounded  by  dots  noted  above  in 
connection  with  the  frigate-bird.  Brinton  concludes  that 
this  mystic  symbol  is  a  representation  of  the  curious  knob 
on  the  bill  of  the  male  white  pelican,  and  therefore  identifies 
these  curious  figures  as  pelicans.  Stempell  follows  Brinton 
in  this,  but  considers  that  they  are  the  brown  pelican  {P. 


326  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

fuscus),  since  the  white  pelican  is  rare  or  casual,  as  far  south 
as  Yucatan.  Unfortunately,  however,  for  this  supposition, 
the  brown  pelican  lacks  the  curious  knob  that  Brinton  be- 
lieved to  be  represented  by  the  circle  of  dots.  Moreover, 
this  same^ign  occurs  on  the  drawings  of  the  bills  of  the  frigate- 
bird  and  the  ocellated  turkey,  and  is  evidently  not  of  specific 
significance.  To  our  minds  it  is  doubtful  if  the  figures  under 
discussion  are  birds  at  all,  and  we  are  unable  to  assign  them 
a  name  with  any  degree  of  confidence.  A  pecuHar  glyph 
occurs  in  connection  with  them  which  may  be  an  aid  to  their 
ultimate  identification.  Brinton  calls  the  glyph  the  "fish 
and  oyster  sign." 

Ocellated  Turkey  (Agriocharis  ocellata).  This  turkey 
(Maya  kup)  is  an  important  species  in  the  Maya  economy, 
and  is  seen  frequently  in  the  manuscripts.  This  is  a  smaller 
bird  than  the  more  northern  true  turkey  {Meleagris)  and  is 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  curious  erect  knobs  on  the 
top  of  the  naked  head.  These  are  shown  in  conventionalized 
form  in  the  various  figures  (PI.  16),  and  afford  a  ready  means 
of  identification.  On  the  bill  of  the  bird  shown  in  Tro- 
Cortesianus  10b  (PL  16.  fig.  2)  occurs  again  the  curious  symbol, 
a  circle  surrounded  by  dots,  previously  noted  under  the 
frigate-bird  and  pelican.  It  probably  has  some  special  sig- 
nificance. Other  figures  of  ocellated  turkeys  show  but  little 
in  addition  to  the  points  just  discussed.  One  shown  in  PI.  16, 
fig.  7,  from  Codex  Vaticanus  3773,  however,  has  a  circular 
ring  about  the  eye  and  the  wattles  are  indicated  as  projec- 
tions merely.  In  fig.  13,  they  are  apparently  shown  as 
stalked  knobs  found  elsewhere  in  connection  with  serpent 
■head  ornaments.  It  is  only  the  head  in  this  latter  figure 
which  is  considered  in  this  interpretation. 

In  the  Nuttall  Codex,  there  frequently  occur  representa- 
tions of  a  bird  that  was  evidently  used  for  sacrificial  purposes. 
It  is  shown  with  erectile  head  feathers  and  a  ring  of  circular 
marks  about  the  eye  (PI.  26,  figs:  12,  14;  PI.  27,  figs.  2-3) 
or  with  concentric  circles  (PI.  27,  fig.  1).       These  figures  are 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  327 

not  surely  identifiable,  but  probably  represent  this  turkey. 
Possibly  they  are  the  chachalaca  {Ortalis  vetula  palli- 
diventris),  a  gallinaceous  bird,  commonly  kept  in  semi- 
domestication  in  Mexico,  whose  bare  eye  ring  and  slightly 
erectile  head  feathers  may  be  represented  by  the  drawings. 
It  is  probable  that  this  turkey  is  the  bird  represented  frequently 
in  the  Maya  codices  as  a  bird  of  sacrifice.  The  head  alone 
usually  appears  in  this  connection,  among  other  places,  in 
Dresden  34a  (PL  16,  fig.  10),  41c  (fig.  14),  29c  (fig.  16),  28c 
(fig.  17),  and  in  Tro-Cortesianus  12b  (PI.  16,  fig.  11),  105b 
(fig.  12),  107b  (fig.  15).  In  several  of  these  places  the  head 
is  represented  as  resting  on  one  or  more  Kan  signs,  again 
meaning  bread,  as  well  as  on  the  vessel  or  jar.  In  Dresden 
26c  (PI.  16,  fig.  9),  the  whole  turkey  is  pictured  as  an  offering, 
as  in  the  preceding  case  noted  in  Dresden  35a  (PI.  15,  fig.  9). 
The  whole  bird  as  an  offering  may  also  appear  in  Tro-Cor- 
tesianus 4a  (PI.  16,  fig.  4)  corresponding  to  the  offering  of 
venison  and  iguana  on  the  following  pages.  This  representa- 
tion of  the  entire  bird  is  very  rare  although  the  fish,  when 
used  as  an  offering,  is  always  represented  as  a  whole  and  the 
iguana  is  in  most  cases  when  used  in  the  same  connection. 
Landa  (1864,  p.  222)*  confirms  the  offering  of  the  heads  of 
birds  with  bread. 

It  is,  however,  the  sacrifice  of  a  bird,  probably  a  turkey, 
by  decapitating,  that  is  especially  interesting,  as  the  opera- 
tion as  shown  in  the  Dresden  Codex  25c  (PI.  26,  fig.  2),  26c, 
27c,  28c,  in  the  rites  of  the  four  years,  is  described  in  full  by 
Landa.  In  the  codex,  a  priest  is  represented  as  holding  in 
his  hand  before  an  altar,  a  headless  bird.  Landa  (1864, 
pp.  212,  218,  224,  228)  f  tells  us  that  in  the  Kan,  the  Muluc, 

*"Y  ofrecerle  cabe^as  de  pavos  y  pan  y  bevidas  de  maiz." 
t(Kan  year)  "Sahumavan  la  imagen,  degollavan  una  gallina  y  se  la  pre- 
sentavan  o  offrecian  .  .  .  y  assi  le  hazian  muchas  offrendas  de  comidas  y 
bevidas  de  came  y  peseado,  y  estas  offrendas  repartian  a  los  estrangeros 
•que  alii  se  hallavan." 

(Muluc  year)  "Y  despues  degollavanle  la  gallina  como  al  passado." 
(Ix  year)  "Y  degollavan  la  gallina  ...  a  la  estatua  de  Kac-u-Uayeyah 


328  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

the  Ix,  and  the  Cauac  years,  the  priests  burnt  incense  to  the 
idol,  decapitated  a  "gallina''  (undoubtedly  a  turkey),  and 
presented  it  to  the  god. 

The  turkey  is  also  used  as  a  head-dress.  Only  in  one 
case,  however,  Tro-Cortesianus  95c  (PL  16,  fig.  5),  is  the  whole 
bird  represented  in  this  connection.  This  is  clearly  of  to- 
temic  significance  here,  as  it  occurs  in  that  part  of  the  codex 
where  birth  and  infant  baptism  are  shown.  In  many  other 
places  there  are  curious  partial  representations  of  bird  heads 
in  the  front  of  head-dresses  which  may  or  may  not  be  identified 
as  heads  of  turkeys.  Among  these  are  the  head-dress  of 
god  H  in  Dresden  7c,  of  god  E  in  Dresden  He,  of  god  C  in 
Dresden  13b,  of  god  A  in  Dresden  23c,  and  a  female  divinity 
in  Dresden  20a  (PI.  16,  fig.  13).  Schellhas  (1904,  p.  43) 
identifies  these  birds  as  vultures. 

That  the  turkey  is  connected  with  the  rain  seems  clear. 
This  is  especially  the  case  among  the  Nahuas.  In  the  Aubin 
manuscript  the  rain  god,  Tlaloc,  often  appears  in  the  disguise 
of  the  turkey-cock  (uexolotl),  and  in  the  Vaticanus  3773,  14, 
the  turkey  (PL  16,  fig.  7)  is  represented  in  the  "House  of 
Rain,"  in  contrast  to  the  owl  shown  in  the  "  House  of  Drought " 
(Seler,  1902-1903,  p.  75).  It  might  be  noted  also  that  Fewkes 
(1892,  p.  228)  shows  that  the  turkey  is  emblematic  of  the  rain 
among  the  pueblo  peoples.  The  same  idea  seems  to  be  present 
among  the  Mayas,  as  we  note  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus  10b 
(PL  16,  fig.  2)  the  turkey  is  pictured  in  the  rain  and  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  bands  of  constellation  signs. 

Two  methods  of  capturing  the  turkey  are  shown  in  the 
Tro-Cortesianus  93a  and  91a  (PL  16,  figs.  1,  3).  By  the 
first,  the  bird  is  captured  alive  in  a  sort  of  wicker  basket, 
which  drops  over  it  at  the  proper  moment.  The  second 
method  is  by  the  'Hwich-up"  or  snare,  which  consists  of  a 

ofrescian  una  cabe9a  de  un  pavo,  y  empanados  de  codornices  y  otras  coasa 
y  su  bevida." 

(Cauac  year)  "Como  solian  y  degollavanle  la  gallina  .  .  .  un  hombre 
muerto  y  en  cima  un  paxaro  cenicero  Hamad  kiich,  en  seiial  de  mortandad 
grande,  ca  por  muy  mal  afio  tenian  este." 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  329 

noose  tied  to  a  bent  sapling  and  properly  baited.  In  con- 
nection with  PL  16,  fig.  1,  it  may  be  suggested  that  possibly 
this  represents  a  cage  rather  than  a  trap,  in  which  the  bird  is 
confined.  The  Lacandones  at  the  present  time  often  keep 
their  totem  animals  in  captivity  (Tozzer,  1907,  p.  40). 

King  Vulture  {Sarcorhamphus  papa).  Numerous  fig- 
ures of  vultures  appear  in  the  codices  and  elsewhere.  In- 
deed, they  are  among  the  most  common  of  the  birds  depicted. 
Two  species  only  seem  to  occur  in  the  writings,  the  king 
vulture  and  the  black  vulture.  The  former  is  a  large  black 
and  white  bird  with  the  head  and  the  upper  part  of  the  neck 
unfeathered,  except  for  numerous  short,  almost  bristle-like 
plumules.  These  naked  portions  are  often  colored  red  and 
there  is  a  large  more  or  less  squarish  fleshy  knob  at  the  base 
of  the  upper  ramus  of  the  beak.  This  conspicuous  pro- 
tuberance has  been  seized  upon  as  a  characteristic  in  the 
conventionalized  figures,  and  serves  to  identify  the  king  from 
the  black  vulture.  In  addition,  a  series  of  concentric  circles 
about  the  eye  seems  to  be  a  rather  constant  mark  of  the 
king  vulture,  though  they  are  also  sometimes  found  in  con- 
nection with  figures  which,  from  the  absence  of  the  rostral 
knob,  must  represent  black  vultures  (PI.  18,  figs.  18,  27; 
PI.  19,  figs.  7,  10,  11).  In  the  case  of  the  bird  shown  in  PI.  19, 
fig.  1,  the  knob  is  hardly  apparent,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
PI.  19,  fig.  13.  Both  these  may  represent  king  vultures. 
A  remarkable  figure  is  that  shown  in  PL  17,  fig.  4,  in  which 
an  ocellated  turkey  and  a  king  vulture  confront  each  other  with 
necks  intertwined.  The  short  hair-like  black  feathers  of 
the  head  are  represented  in  this  as  well  as  in  PL  17,  fig.  11, 
and  in  the  glyph  carved  in  stone  (PL  17,  fig.  10),  which  from 
the  presence  of  the  knob  is  probably  a  king  vulture.  The 
characteristic  knob  is  shown  in  a  variety  of  ways.  Thus, 
in  PL  17,  fig.  1,  it  is  greatly  developed  and  resembles  a  large 
horn  wuth  a  falcate  tip.  In  PL  17,  fig.  4,  it  is  sharply  angular 
and  nearly  square.  Frequently,  it  is  a  circle  with  a  centered 
ring  surmounted  by  one  or  two  additional  rings  or  terminated 
by  a  mitre-shaped  structure  (PL  17,  figs.  2,  5-7,  8-12).     A 


330  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

very  simple  form  was  found  in  the  carving  shown  in  PI.  17, 
fig.  13,  where  a  long  projecting  knob  is  seen  at  the  base  of 
the  culmen. 

The  king  vulture  seems  to  have  a  part  to  play  as  a  mytho- 
logical being,  as  it  is  pictured  as  a  god  with  human  body 
and  bird  head  in  the  act  of  cohabiting  with  a  woman  in  Dres- 
den 19a,  and  with  a  dog  in  Dresden  13c  (PL  17,  fig.  3).  More- 
over, the  same  vulture  god  is  represented  on  a  blue  background 
and  under  a  band  of  constellation  signs  in  Dresden  38b,  and 
is  also  to  be  noted  in  Dresden  8a.  Forstemann  (1906,  p.  66) 
fihows  that  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  Maya  month  is  reached 
in  the  tonalamatl  reckoning  at  this  place.  This  day  is  Cib, 
which  corresponds  to  the  Nahua  day  Cozcaquauhtli,  which 
has  the  meaning  vulture,  and  here,  as  previously  noted,  the 
vulture  god  is  represented.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  22c  (PI.  17, 
fig.  2)  and  10a,*  the  king  vulture  appears  alone,  in  the  first 
instance  with  a  blue  background,  and  in  the  second  with  a 
background  representing  rain.  Rain  is  also  shown  in  connec- 
tion with  the  vulture  god  in  Dresden  38b,  and  the  black 
vulture  in  Tro-Cortesianus  18b  (PL  19,  fig.  13). 

The  king  vulture  is  found  employed  as  a  head-dress 
tw^ice  out  of  the  three  times  it  appears  in  any  connection 
with  female  figures,  Tro-Cortesianus  26c  (PL  17,  fig.  12) 
with  male  figure,  and  94c  (PL  17,  fig.  11)  and  95c  with  female 
figures.  The  last  two  clearly  have  to  do  with  the  baptism 
and  naming  of  infants,  as  previously  explained. 

The  study  of  the  glyph  used  to  indicate  the  vulture  is 
interesting,  for  we  find  it  recurring  again  and  again  through- 
out the  Maya  codices  and  often  when  there  is  no  other  drawing 
of  the  animal,  as  in  Dresden  39c  (PL  17,  fig.  5;  PL  18,  fig.  19). 
The  first  example  (glyph  6)  is  clearly  the  head  of  the  king 
vulture,  whereas  the  second  (glyph  3)  is  probably  the  head 
of  the  black  vulture.  The  glyph  in  Dresden  38b  (PL  17, 
fig.  7)  appears  in  connection  with  the  vulture  god  directly 
below  it.     In  Dresden  lib  (PL  18,  fig.  1),  it  occurs  alone  and 

♦Forstemann  identifies  this  bird  as  a  black  eagle. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE     MAYA  CODICES  331 

no  figure  appears  in  the  usual  place  below.  The  Tun  period 
glyph  (PI.  17,  fig.  10)  frequently  shows  vulture  character- 
istics especially  in  the  nostril  of  the  face.  The  teeth,  how- 
ever, often  appearing  in  the  Tun  glyph  would  be  against 
this  theory.  The  blending  of  bird  and  mammal  characteristics 
is  not  uncommon  in  the  Maya  drawings,  however. 

The  Nahua  day  sign,  Cozcaquauhtli,  as  previously  noted, 
has  the  meaning  vulture,  and  we  naturally  find  this  bird 
frequently  represented  in  the  Mexican  codices.  In  the 
Nuttall  Codex,  the  head  of  the  king  vulture  occurs  repeatedly 
as  a  glyph  for  this  day.  In  its  less  modified  forms  (PL  18, 
figs.  2-4),  the  beak  is  merely  a  pair  of  flattened  rami,  sur- 
mounted proximally  by  the  conspicuous  quadrangular  knob. 
The  minute  hair-like  feathers  on  the  otherwise  naked  head 
are  shown  as  a  fringe  at  the  throat  and  crown,  while  a  con- 
ventionalized ear  is  represented  posteriorly.  A  series  of  inter- 
esting figures  (PL  18,  figs.  5-10)  illustrates  steps  in  the  further 
reduction  of  this  head  to  a  small  glyph  in  which  only  the  beak 
with  its  large  squarish  knob  remains  (PL  18,  fig.  10). 

Black  Vulture  {Catharista  uruhu).  It  is  difficult  to 
assign  any  single  characteristic  to  the  figures  representing 
the  black  vulture  (Maya,  Csom)  other  than  the  long  raptorial 
beak.  A  number  of  drawings  probably  depict  black  vultures, 
though  this  cannot  be  certainly  affirmed.  Such  are  those 
shown  in  PL  18,  figs.  11,  12,  14,  17;  PL  19,  figs.  2-4,  13,  14. 
Stempell  considers  the  vulture  shown  in  PL  18,' fig.  13,  to  be 
a  king  vulture,  but  it  has  no  knob  on  the  beak,  and  thus  is 
-quite  likely  the  black  vulture.  The  fact  that  its  head  is 
shaped  much  like  that  of  the  god  with  the  king  vulture  head  (PL 
17,  fig.  3)  would  indicate  merely  the  individuality  of  the  artist. 
The  coloring  of  the  species  under  discussion  is  uniformly 
black  in  the  Dresden  and  Tro-Cortesianus,  except  in  certain 
cases  where  the  birds  are  shown  in  outline  only,  as  in  PL  19* 
fig.  12.  It  is  not  certain,  however,  that  these  two  last  are 
black  vultures,  though  they  suggest  the  species.  The  two 
birds  shown  in  PL  19,  figs,  o,  6,  are  almost  surely  black  vul- 
tures, and,  as  represented  in  the  manuscript,  are  descending 


332  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

upon  a  man.  Stempell  thinks  they  may  be  ravens,  but  this 
is  very  doubtful,  for  the  raven  probably  was  unknown  to  the 
Mayas,  since  its  range  is  to  the  northward.  What  appears 
to  be  a  crest  is  seen  on  the  head  of  the  bird  in  PL  19,  fig.  4. 
The  black  coloring  and  the  shape  of  the  bill  otherwise  suggest 
the  black  vulture,  though  perhaps  the  crest  would  indicate 
the  harpy  eagle.  Similarly,  PL  19,  fig.  14,  is  provided  with 
a  sort  of  tuft  or  crest,  but  its  general  appearance  is  suggestive 
of  the  vulture.  A  pottery  whistle  (text  fig.  2)  from  the  Uloa 
Valley  evidently  represents  a  black  vulture.  The  head  of 
the  bird  shows  the  characteristic  wrinkled  appearance  seen 


Fig.  2. 

POTTERY  WHISTLE,  VULTURE.    ULOA  VALLEY,  HONDURAS. 

in  the  drawings,  with  the  heavy  beak.     The  absence  of  the 
rostral  knob  would  preclude  its  being  a  king  vulture. 

It  is  natural  that  this  bird  should  find  an  important 
place  in  the  Maya  writing,  as  it  is  an  abundant  species  in  the 
region  considered,  and  of  great  importance  as  a  scavenger. 
The  black  vulture  seems  to  lack  the  mythological  character 
associated  with  the  king  vulture.  It  appears  usually  in 
connection  with  death  and  in  the  role  of  a  bird  of  prey.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus  where  in  24d,  26d 
(PL  19,  figs.  5,  6)  and  28c,  it  is  attacking  a  human  being, 
in  the  first  and  last  cases  represented  as  dead.  In  86a  and 
87a,  the  bird  is  shown  plucking  out  the  eye  of  a  man.     In 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  333 

Dresden  3a  (PI.  19,  fig.  7),  it  appears  at  the  top  of  the  tree 
above  the  human  sacrifice  and  seems  to  be  in  the  act  of  con- 
^suming  the  victim.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  91c,  it  also  appears 
in  a  tree.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  40a  (PI.  17,  fig.  9),  and  42a 
(PL  19,  fig.  1),  it  is  shown  as  eating  the  entrails  of  a  deer. 
In  the  first  case,  the  bird  looks  like  a  king  vulture,  although 
this  is  the  only  instance  where  this  species  is  shown  as  a  bird 
of  prey.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  28b  and  36b  (PL  18,  fig.  17), 
the  black  vulture  appears  eating  the  Kan  sign.  In  the  first 
example,  the  Kan  represents  the  newly  sowed  corn,  in  the 
second,  the  Kan  is  held  by  god  F.  Landa  (1864,  p.  230)* 
records  that  in  the  Cauac  year  there  was  a  ceremony  to  pre- 
vent the  ants  and  the  birds  devouring  the  corn.  In  Dresden 
34b  and  35b,  the  vulture  is  shown  on  top  of  the  head-dress 
of  god  F,  evidently  the  enemy  of  the  harvest  and,  again,  on 
35b  (PL  19,  fig.  4)  on  top  of  the  Cauac  sign.  Its  role  as  a 
bird  of  prey  is  further  shown  in  Dresden  36b  (PL  19,  fig.  11), 
where   it   is  shown  attacking  a  serpent. 

This  vulture  is  associated  with  god  B  in  Dresden  69b, 
with  god  M  in  Tro-Cortesianus  70a  (PL  18,  fig.  12),  and  with 
god  D  in  Tro-Cortesianus  67a  (PL  17,  fig.  1).  The  last  may 
be  the  king  rather  than  the  black  vulture,  as  suggested  above. 
The  black  vulture  occurs  only  once  as  the  usual  head-dress, 
in  Dresden  17b  (PL  18,  fig.  13),  and  here  in  connection  with 
a  female  figure  and  the  idea  of  birth.  Two  birds,  probably 
vultures,  appear  over  the  enclosure  around  the  head  of  god  C 
in  Tro-Cortesianus  100b  (PL  19,  fig.  12).  In  the  Lower 
Chamber  of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers  occurs  a  black  vulture 
in  bas-relief  with  a  necklace  represented  (PL  19,  fig.  14). 

The  glyph  of  the  king  vulture  has  already  been  discussed. 
There  are  other  glyphs  which  seem  to  show  the  black  vulture, 
although  it  is  quite  possible  that  no  sharp  distinction  was 

*"Este  alio  en  que  la  letra  era  Cauac  y  reynava  el  Bacab-Hozanek  tenian, 
allende  de  la  pronosticada  mortandad,  por  ruyn,  por  que  dezian  les  avian 
los  muchos  soles  de  matar  los  maizales,  y  comer  las  muchas  hormigas  lo  que 
sembrassen  y  los  paxaros,  y  porque  esto  no  seria  en  todas  partes  avria  en 
algunos  comida,  la  qual  avrian  con  gran  trabajo." 


334  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE     MAYA  CODICES 

made  between  the  two  in  regard  to  the  glyphs  at  least.  In. 
one  case  (PI.  18,  fig.  18),  the  wrinkled  skin  of  the  head  and 
neck  is  indicated  much  as  in  the  case  of  the  king  vulture. 
A  few  other  glyphs  are  shown  (PL  18,  figs.  16,  19,  22,  27), 
as  well  as  a  variety  from  the  Nuttall  Codex  in  which  the  mi- 
nute hair-like  feathers  of  the  head  are  variously  represented, 
usually  much  exaggerated  as  a  sort  of  crest  or  comb.  PL  18, 
fig.  22,  is  interesting  as  being  the  only  case  in  the  Maya  codices 
where  the  whole  figure  is  shown  in  the  glyph.  As  noted  in 
the  case  of  the  glyphs  of  the  king  vulture,  the  greater  number 
of  these  occur  quite  alone.  They  seem  to  indicate  that  a 
full  drawing  of  the  bird  is  meant  to  be  understood  as  occur- 
ring below. 

Several  of  the  carved  glyphs  (PL  19,  figs.  8-10)  show  the 
black  vulture  heads  in  some  detail  with  the  conspicuously 
open  nostril  and  hooked  beak.  ,  A  carving  of  the  entire 
bird  may  be  shown  on  Stela  D  from  Copan  (PL  28,  fig.  5), 
where  the  naked  head  and  neck  are  marked  off  by  lines  indi- 
cating wrinkled  skin.  The  same  lines  on  the  neck  of  the 
bird  depicted  on  PL  28,  fig.  2,  will  probably  identify  it  as  a 
vulture,  and,  if  the  square  ornament  above  the  beak  certainly 
is  part  of  the  figure,  it  is  unquestionably  the  king  vulture. 
The  knob  is  not,  however,  clearly  on  the  bird's  beak.  There 
are  two  interesting  glyphs  which  occur  on  the  eastern  fa9ade 
of  the  Monjas  at  Chichen  Itza.  The  glyphs  in  this  inscrip- 
tion are  unlike  the  usual  Maya  hieroglyphs,  although  several 
of  the  so-called  constellation  signs  can  be  made  out.  The 
two  glyphs  in  question  represent  the  entire  body  possibly 
of  a  vulture,  that  on  PL  17,  fig.  13,  probably  the  king  vulture, 
and  that  on  PL  18,  fig.  14,  the  black  vulture. 

Harpy  Eagle  {Tkrasaetos  harpyia).  In  the  Nuttall 
Codex,  what  is  undoubtedly  the  harpy  eagle  is  of  frequent 
occurrence.  This  great  bird  is  not  uncommon  in  the  forests 
of  southern  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  must  have 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  people  from  its  size.  The 
elongated  feathers  at  the  back  of  the  head  form  a  conspicuous 
crest,  a  feature  that  characterizes  this  species  in  most  of  the 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  335- 

representations.  A  stone  carving  from  Chichen  Itza  (PI.  20, 
fig.  10)  pictures  a  harpy  eagle  eating  an  egg-shaped  object, 
and  another  similarly  engaged  is  copied  from  the  Codex 
Vaticanus  3773  (PL  20,  fig.  14).  The  former  is  considered 
to  be  a  vulture  by  Maudslay,  but  the  presence  of  feathers 
covering  the  head  excludes  this  interpretation.  In  two 
stone  glyphs  (PI.  20,  fig.  1,3),  occurs  a  large  bird  apparently 
devouring  something  held  in  its  talons,  as  in  PL  20,  fig.  10. 
From  this  general  resemblance,  it  seems  probable  that  both 
represent  the  harpy,  although  no  crests  are  shown  on  the 
glyphs.  In  the  Dresden  and  the  Tro-Cortesianus  occur  a 
few  figures  of  crested  birds  that  probably  are  the  same  species. 
The  crest  feathers  are  reduced  to  two,  however,  or,  in  some 
cases,  what  may  be  a  third  projecting  forward  from  the  base 
of  the  bill  (PL  20,  figs.  5,  7,  12,  13).  The  last  two  figures 
are  not  certainly  identifiable,  though  it  is  probable  that 
they  represent  the  harpy. 

The  eagle  seems  to  be  the  bird  associated  with  warriors 
in  the  codices.  Seler  (1900-1901,  p.  89)  notes  that  the 
eagle  and  the  jaguar  are  both  the  mark  of  brave  warriors 
among  the  Nahuas.  In  the  Aubin  manuscript,  the  warrior 
god,  Yaotl,  is  always  associated  with  the  eagle  (quauhtli). 
In  the  Maya  pantheon,  god  M  is  usually  considered  the  war 
god,  as  he  is  almost  always  armed  with  a  spear.  He  is  seen 
in  Dresden  74  (PL  20,  fig.  13),  and  in  Tro-Cortesianus  109c 
with  an  eagle  as  a  head-dress.  There  are  other  gods,  how- 
ever, who  wear  a  similar  head  covering.  God  L  appears  in 
Dresden  14b  (PL  20,  fig.  7)  and  again  in  14c  (PL  20,  fig.  5) 
with  an  eagle  head-dress.  God  D  in  Dresden  23c  (PL  20, 
fig.  11)  has  an  eagle  coming  from  a  Tun  sign  on  top  of  his 
head.  The  eagle  is  probably  represented  at  the  prow  of 
a  boat  in  Dresden  43c  (PL  20,  fig.  12)  in  which  god  B  is  row- 
ing. In  Tro-Cortesianus  88c  (PL  20,  fig.  4),  a  bird  which 
may  represent  the  eagle  appears  sitting  on  a  Cimi  (death) 
sign.  Above  in  the  glyphs  the  character  for  the  south  is 
shown.  Here,  clearly,  there  is  some  connection  between  the 
signs  of  the  cardinal  points  in  the  line  of  glyphs  and  the 
various  creatures  pictured  below. 


336  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

There  seems  to  be  only  one  glyph  which  can  in  any  way 
be  taken  for  that  of  the  eagle  in  the  Maya  manuscripts  and 
this  appears  only  once,  in  Tro-Cortesianus  107c  (PL  20,  fig.  9) . 
This  identification  may  be  questioned,  as  there  is  no  drawing 
of  an  eagle  associated  with  the  glyph.  Attention  has  already 
been  called  to  the  two  stone  glyphs  in  PL  20,  figs.  1,  3.  There 
are  various  drawings  of  the  glyph  for  the  eagle  in  the  Nahua 
and  Zapotecan  codices  (PL  20,  fig.  8),  as  the  Nahua  day, 
Quauhtli,  has  the  meaning  eagle.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
in  the  glyph  from  the  Nuttall  Codex  (PL  20,  fig.  8)  the  tips 
of  the  feathers  are  crowned  with  stone  points,  a  frequent 
way  of  representing  birds  of  prey  among  the  Mexican  peoples. 

Yucatan  Horned  Owl  {Bubo  virginianus  mayensis). 
Stempell  makes  a  serious  mistake  by  confusing  the  eared 
owl  shown  in  full  face  with  that  shown  in  profile  in  the  draw- 
ings, for  he  considers  both  to  represent  the  great  horned  owl. 
The  figures  are,  however,  quite  different  in  every  way.  The 
owl  in  full  face  view  is  unquestionably  the  great  horned 
owl  (Maya,  ikim),  the  Yucatan  form  of  which  is  recognized 
by  the  subspecific  title  mayensis.  This  is  the  bird  opposed 
to  the  ''  Moan-bird  "  which,  as  will  be  shown  later,  is  associated 
with  death.  In  PL  21  are  some  truly  remarkable  figures 
which  seem  to  represent  this  horned  owl,  the  first  modelled 
in  stucco  from  Palenque,  the  second  carved  in  stone  from 
Yaxchilan,  and  the  third  carved  in  wood  from  Tikal.  Figs. 
1  and  3  show  the  bird  in  flight  with  extended  wings.  The 
two  erectile  tufts  of  feathers  or  "horns"  are  conspicuously 
represented  in  fig.  3,  at  either  side  of  the  bird's  head  and  be- 
tween them  the  flat  top  of  the  crown  is  secondarily  divided 
in  like  manner  into  three  parts,  representing  the  "horns" 
and  the  top  of  the  head.  The  beetling  brows,  heavy  hooked 
beak,  and  spread  talons  combine  to  give  a  fierce  and  spirited 
mien  to  the  great  bird.  PL  21,  fig.  2,  may  be  a  greatly  con- 
ventionalized owl  in  which  the  essential  characteristics  of 
the  bird  are  reproduced  in  a  rectangular  design.  The  large 
bill  is  conspicuous  in  the  center,  and  in  each  upper  corner 
terminates  one  of  the  ears.     The  eyes  are  represented  by 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  337 

rectangular  areas  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  each  with  three 
vertical  bars  across  it.  Below  the  beak,  or  at  either  side  of 
the  tip,  are  the  feet,  each  with  the  claw  cross-hatched. 
What  seem  to  be  the  reduced  and  highly  conventional- 
ized wings  fill  the  lower  corner  of  each  side  of  the  figure. 

The  shield  in  the  center  of  the  Tablet  of  the  Sun  at  Pa- 
lenque  (PI.  22,  fig.  6)  shows  a  face  in  which  the  motif  seems 
to  be  the  full-face  view  of  the  horned  owl.  The  hooked  bill 
curves  over  the  mouth  at  each  side  of  which  is  the  curious 
scroll  seen  in  the  same  connection  in  the  figures  of  PI.  21. 
The  ears  are  somewhat  shorter  in  proportion  than  usual 
and  below  each,  at  the  sides  of  the  face,  is  a  large  ear-plug, 
similar  to  that  elsewhere  found.  The  eyes  are  still  further 
conventionalized  with  a  decorative  scroll  surrounding  each. 
Another  example  of  the  conventionalized  owl's  head  is  on 
Stela  1  from  Cankuan  (Maler,  1908,  PL  13).  We  are  not 
yet  ready  to  advance  an  explanation  of  the  reason  why  the 
owl  should  occupy  such  a  prominent  position  in  the  art  of 
the  Mayas. 

In  only  one  case  is  the  horned  owl  found  in  the  Maya 
manuscripts.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  95c  (PI.  22,  fig.  2),  this 
owl  appears  as  the  head-dress  of  a  woman  in  that  portion  of 
the  codex  where  baptism  and  naming  are  shown.  An  owPs 
head  seems  to  be  shown  on  the  end  of  a  warrior's  staff  in  the 
bas-relief  of  the  Lower  Chamber  of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers 
at  Chichen  Itza  (PL  22,  fig.  4).  PL  22,  figs.  5,  7,  show  two 
owls  from  the  Aubin  manuscript;  the  first  is  considered  to 
be  the  screech  owl  (chiqualli)  and  the  second  the  horned  owl 
(tecolotl,  in  Nahuatl).  [PL  22,  figs.  1,  3,  show  two  drawings  of 
owls  from  Nahua  manuscripts. 

Yucatan  Screech  Owl  or  Moan  Bird  (Otus  choliba 
thompsoni).  A  second  species  of  owl  is  represented  by  the 
figures  on  PL  23.  This  has  likewise  two  feathered  tufts  or 
"ears"  on  its  head  and  is  always  shown  with  the  head,  at 
least,  in  profile,  but  the  tufts  one  in  front,  the  other  at  the 
back  of  the  head.  The  facial  disc  is  not  very  prominent 
the  beak  rather  long,  the  tail  short,  and  the  plumage  some- 
IV.  22 


338  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

what  mottled.  A  dark  ring  usually  surrounds  the  eye.  It 
is,  with  little  doubt,  the  screech  owl,  the  only  other  form  of 
eared  owl  commonly  met  with  in  the  Central  American  region, 
and  in  Yucatan  is  represented  by  the  race  above  indicated. 
This  owl,  under  the  name  of  the  Moan  bird,*  is  always  asso- 
ciated with  the  idea  of  death  among  the  Mayas.  The  famili- 
arity of  this  species  and  its  mournful  quavering  cry  uttered 
at  night  have  no  doubt  led  to  its  association  with  death  and 
mystery  as  with  owls  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

This  Moan  bird  has  an  important  place  in  the  Maya  pan- 
theon, as  it  is  the  representative  in  many  places  of  god  A, 
the  Death  god.  It  appears  with  a  human  body  in  Dresden 
7c  (PI.  23,  fig.  1),  10a  (PI.  23,  fig.  8),  and  11a  (PL  23,  fig.  3) 
and  in  Tro-Cortesianus  66a  (PL  23,  fig.  2).  In  each  of  these 
places,  it  occupies  the  space  in  which  one  of  the  regular  gods 
is  usually  found.  In  Dresden  10a,  the  day  reached  in  the 
tonalamatl  reckoning  is  Cimi,  meaning  death,  and  here,  as 
has  been  noted,  is  found  the  Moan  bird,  the  symbol  of  death, 
with  another  sign  of  death  in  the  circle  just  above  the  head 
of  the  bird  (PL  23,  fig.  8). 

This  owl  is  used  as  a  head-dress  itself,  but  always  for 
women,  Dresden  16a  (PL  23,  fig.  19),  18b  (PL  23,  fig.  5), 
Tro-Cortesianus  94c  (PL  23,  fig.  4),  and  95c  (PL  23,  fig.  20). 
It  occurs  in  both  manuscripts  in  the  pages  mentioned  several 
times  before,  where  birth,  baptism,  and  the  naming  of  children 
are  shown.  The  curious  figure,  with  a  head  similar  to  PL  23, 
fig. 21,  carried  on  the  back  of  some  of  the  women,  .is  the  Moan 
sign,  referring  to  the  idea  of  death,  possibly  to  still-birth,  as 
copulation  and  birth  are  shown  in  this  section  of  the  codex 
(Dresden  18c,  19c).  The  Moan  is  found  associated  with 
man  only  once  in  the  manuscripts.     In  Tro-Cortesianus  73b 

♦Brinton  (1895,  p.  74),  according  to  our  interpretation,  makes  a  mistake 
when  he  considers  the  crested  falcon  as  the  Moan,  "in  Maya  muan  or 
muyan."  He  adds,  "Some  writers  have  thought  the  moan  bird  was  a 
mythical  animal  but  Dr.  C.  H.  Berendt  found  the  name  still  applied  to  the 
falcon.  In  the  form  muyan,  it  is  akin  in  sound  to  muyal,  cloud,  muan, 
cloudy,  which  may  account  for  its  adoption  as  a  symbol  of  the  rains,  etc." 


ANIMAL  FIGUEES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  339 

(PL  23,  fig.  18),  he  is  found  perching  on  a  curious  frame- 
like structure  in  which  god  B  is  sitting. 

There  are  several  glyphs  representing  the  Moan  bird  or 
screech  owl; the  first  type  is  easily  identifiable,  as  the  head  of 
the  bird  is  clearly  pictured  (PL  23,  figs.  11-14,  16).  This 
head  is  frequently  associated  with  the  number  thirteen  (Dres- 
den 8b).  It  may  occur  in  the  line  of  glyphs  (Dresden  16c), 
and  refer  to  the  Moan  pictured  below,  or  it  may  occur  in  the 
line  of  glyphs  with  no  picture  corresponding  to  it  below 
(Dresden  53b).  PL  23,  fig.  15,  from  Dresden  38c  has  been 
placed  with  these  drawings,  although  the  identification  is 
not  certain.  It  may  refer,  however,  to  the  large  Moan  head 
below,  on  which  god  B  is  sitting  (PL  23,  fig.  11).  The  second 
type  of  glyph  does  not  resemble  in  any  way  the  Moan,  but 
they  are  clearly  signs  for  it,  as  they  are  often  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  picture  of  the  Moan,  Dresden  7c  (PL  23,  figs. 
6,  7,  21)  and  10a.  In  both  places  fig.  7  is  associated  with 
the  number  thirteen.  Schellhas  also  places  PL  23,  fig.  17, 
among  the  Moan  signs. 

One  of  the  eighteen  Maya  months  is  named  Muan,  and 
some  of  the  glyphs  appearing  for  this  month  in  the  codices 
certainly  represent  the  Moan  or  screech  owl.  This  is  espe- 
cially so  with  text  figs.  3-6.     Forstemann  (1904a)  considers 


Figs.  3,  4,  5,  6. 
GLYPHS  OF  MONTH  MUAN  SHOWING  MOAN-BIRU  CHARACTERISTICS. 

that  the  month  Muan  and,  consequently,  the  sign   as  well, 
refer  to  the  Pleiades. 

In  connection  with  the  screech  owl  referring  to  death, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  among  the  Nahuas  the  owl  is 
considered  of  unlucky  augury  and  is  usually  found  in  the 
"House  of  Death"  and  ^'of  Drought",  as  contrasted  with 


J 


340  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

the  turkey,  considered  as  a  bird  of  good  fortune,  and  found 
in  the  ''  House  of  Rain." 

Coppery-tailed     Trogan     or     Quetzal     {Pharomacrus 
mocinno).     The  quetzal  is  common  locally  in  certain  parts 
of  southern   Mexico.     Its   brilliant   metallic   green   plumage 
and  the  greatly  elongated  tail  feathers  make  it  a  very  notable 
bird.     The  feathers  of  the  head  are  erect  and  stand  out  as 
a  light  crest,  those  of  the  anterior  portion  being  slightly  re- 
curved.    The   delicate  erect  .feathers  of  the   head   are   well 
indicated  in  Vaticanus   3773,  17  (PL  24,  fig.  9)  and  the  tail, 
also,  in  this  figure,  is  only  slightly  conventionalized  with  an 
upward  instead  of  the  natural  downward  sweep.     In  most 
of  the  representations,  the  crest  feathers  are  indicatd  by  large 
plumes,  the  most  anterior  of  which   project   forward.     They 
may   be   even   further   modified   into   three   knobs  shown  in 
Dresden  7c   (PL  24,  fig.   1).     The  two  characteristics  of  the 
quetzal,  namely  its  erect  head  feathers  and  its  extraordi- 
narily  long  tail  feathers,   are   often  used  separately.     Thus 
the  tail,  which  is  commonly  drawn  with  the  outer  feather  of 
each  side  strongly  curled  forward,  appears  by  itself  in  PL  24, 
fig.  8,  or  it  may  be  seen  as  a  plume  in  the  head-dress  of  a 
priest  or  warrior  and  in  other  connections  as  an  ornament. 
A  greatly  conventionalized  drawing  of  the  bird  is  also  shown 
in  PL  24,  fig.  11,  in  which  the  head  bears  a  curious  knob  and 
the  dorsal  feather  of  the  tail  is  upcurled  in  the  manner  of 
the  other  drawings.     It  is  not  at  once  apparent  why  the  long 
drooping  tail  feathers  should  be  shown  thus  recurved.     Pos- 
sibly these  feathers,  when  used   by  the   Mayas   for  plumes, 
curled  over  by  their  own  weight,  if  held  erect,  so  that  the  rep- 
resentations are  a  compromise  between  the  natural  appear- 
ance and  that  when  used  as  ornament  in  the  head  decoration. 
The  color  of  the  bird  and  the  very  long  tail  feathers  have 
already  been  mentioned,  and  these  explain  the  reason  of  the 
importance  of  this  bird  among  the  Mayas.     It  is  claimed  by 
several  old  authorities  that  the  quetzal  was  reserved  for  the 
rulers,  and  that  it  was  death  for  any  common  person  to  kill 
this  bird  for  his  own  use.     It  seems  from  a  statement  in 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 


341 


Landa  (1864,  p.  190)*  that  birds  were  domesticated  for  the 
feathers.  This  bird  occurs  again  and  again  in  various  modi- 
fications throughout  the  Maya  art.  The  feathers  of  the 
quetzal  are  the  ones  usually  associated  with  the  serpent, 
making  the  rebus,  Quetzalcoatl,  the  feathered  serpent,  the 
culture  hero  of  the  Nahuas,  or  Kukulcan,  which  has  the  same 
signification  among  the  Mayas.  It  is  impossible  to  mention 
here  all  the  various  connections  in  which  the  quetzal  appears. 
The  feathers  play  an  important  part  in  the  composition  of 


Fig.  7. 
QUETZAL,  TEMPLE  OF  THE  CROSS,  PALENQUE. 

the  head-dresses  of  the  priests  and  warriors,  especially  those 
in  the  stone  carvings.  A  quotation  has  already  been  given 
from  Landa,  showing  the  use  made  of  feathers  in  the  dress 
of  the  people.  Text  fig.  7  shows  perhaps  the  most  elaborate 
representation  of  this  bird.  It  is  found  on  the  sculptured 
tablet  of  the  Temple  of  the  Cross  at  Palenque.  The  quetzal 
is  shown  seated  on  top  of  a  branching  tree  which  was  long 
taken  to  represent  a  cross.     A  similar  representation  is  seen 

*"Crian  paxaros  para  su  recreacion  y  para  las  plumas  para  hazer  sus  ropas 
galanas." 


342  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

on  the  tablet  of  the  Temple  of  the  Foliated  Cross  from  the 
same  ruined  city.  In  the  Codex  Fejervary-Mayer,  there 
are  four  trees  in  each  of  which  there  is  a  bird.  A  quetzal 
is  perched  in  the  one  corresponding  to  the  east,  which  is 
regarded  as  the  region  of  opulence  and  moisture.  Seler 
(1901,  p.  17)  suggests  that  the  quetzal  in  the  tree  on  the  two 
bas-reliefs  at  Palenque  may  represent  a  similar  idea  and  that 
temples  which  would  show  the  other  three  trees  and  their 
respective  birds  had  not  been  built  in  that  center. 

The  representation  of  the  quetzal  as  an  entire  bird  is, 
after  all,  comparatively  rare.  The  most  realistic  drawing 
is  seen  on  a  jar  from  Copan  in  the  collections  of  the  Peabody 
Museum.  The  whole  body  of  the  bird  is  shown  as  a  head- 
dress in  a  few  places  in  the  codices  where  birth  and  the  naming 
of  children  are  pictured.  In  Dresden  16c  (PI.  24,  fig.  3) 
and  Tro-Cortesianus  94c  (PL  24,. fig.  6),  the  quetzal  is  the 
head-dress  of  women.  In  Dresden  13b  (PI.  24,  fig.  2),  a 
partial  drawing  of  the  bird  is  shown  as  a  part  of  the  head- 
dress of  god  E,  in  Dresden  7c  (PI.  24,  fig.  1)  of  god  H,  and  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  110c  of  god  F.  The  feathers  alone  appear 
as  a  female  head  decoration  in  Dresden  20c  (PL  24,  fig.  8). 
It  occurs  as  a  sacrifice  among  the  rites  of  the  four  years  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  36b  (PL  24,  fig.  12).  In  Tro-Cortesianus 
70a  (PL  24,  fig.  5),  it  is  found  in  the  act  of  eating  fruit  growing 
over  the  ''young  god."  In  Tro-Cortesianus  100b  (PL  24, 
fig.  4),  the  bird  is  perched  over  the  encased  head  of  god  C. 

There  seems  to  be  a  glyph  used  for  the  quetzal.  In  those 
drawn  in  PL  24,  figs.  10,  17,  it  is  noticeable  that  the  anterior 
part  only  of  the  head  is  shown.  The  first  is  a  glyph  from  the 
tablet  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Palenque,  and  at  least 
suggests  the  quetzal  by  the  feathers  on  the  top  of  the  head,  as 
also  PL  24,  fig.  13,  a  glyph  from  Copan,  Stela  10,  where  the 
entire  head  appears  in  a  much  conventionaUzed  form.  Other 
glyphs  are  shown  in  PL  24,  figs.  14-16,  in  which  there  is  a 
single  prominent  recurved  feather  shown  over  the  eye,  suc- 
ceeded by  a  few  conventionalized  feathers,  then  one  or  more 
directed  posteriorly.     It  is  to  be  noted  that  whereas  in  many 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  343 

previous  examples  of  glyphs  the  full  drawing  of  the  animal 
or  bird  has  been  found  in  connection  with  them,  here  with  the 
quetzal  glyphs  there  is  no  instance  where  a  drawing  of  the 
bird  occurs  with  them.  A  curious  human  figure  (PL  24, 
fig.  19),  with  a  head  decoration  similar  to  the  frontal  curve 
and  markings  on  the  quetzal  glyphs  (fig.  14-16),  may  pos- 
sibly represent  this  bird  in  some  relation. 

Blue  Macaw  {Ara  militaris).  A  large  macaw  (Maya, 
mox  or  tut )  is  undoubtedly  pictured  in  the  figures  in  PL  25. 
The  least  conventionalized  drawing  found  is  that  shown  in 
Dresden  16c  (PL  25,  fig.  2),  a  bird  characterized  by  long 
narrow  tail  feathers,  a  heavy  bill,  and  a  series  of  scale-like 
markings  on  the  face  and  about  the  eye.  Further  conven- 
tionalized drawings  are  found  in  PL  25,  figs.  3,  10,  13,  and 
PL  26,  fig.  1.  In  all  these  the  tail  is  less  characteristic,  though 
composed  of  long,  narrow  feathers,  and  the  facial  markings 
are  reduced  to  a  ring  of  circular  marks  about  the  eye.  These 
last  undoubtedly  represent,  as  supposed  by  Stempell,  the 
bare  space  about  the  eye  found  in  certain  of  these  large  parrots. 
In  addition,  the  space  between  the  eye  and  the  base  of  the 
bill  is  partially  bare  with  small  patches  of  feathers  scattered 
at  somewhat  regular  intervals  in  rows.  It  is  probable  that 
this  appearance  is  represented  by  the  additional  round  marks 
about  the  base  of  the  bill  in  PL  25,  figs.  1,  2,  5,  8,  the  last 
two  of  which  show  the  head  only.  There  has  hitherto  been 
some  question  as  to  the  identity  of  certain  stone  carvings, 
similar  to  that  on  Stela  B  from  Copan,  of  which  a  portion  is 
shown  in  PL  25,  fig.  8.  This  has  even  been  interpreted  as 
the  trunk  of  an  elephant  or  a  mastodon,  but  is  unquestionably 
a  macaw's  beak.  In  addition  to  the  ornamental  cross- 
hatching  on  the  beak,  which  is  also  seen  on  the  glyph  from 
the  same  stela  (PL  25,  fig.  5),  there  is  an  ornamental  scroll 
beneath  the  eye  which  likewise  is  crosshatched  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  ring  of  subcircular  marks  that  continue  to  the 
base  of  the  beak.  The  nostril  is  the  large  oval  marking 
directly  in  front  of  the  eye. 

The  animal  in  Dresden  40b   (PL  25,  fig.   1)   has  always 


344  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

been  considered  to  be  a  tortoise  (Schellhas,  1904,  p.  44,  and 
Forstemann,  1904).  This  animal,  together  with  the  dog,  is 
found  beneath  the  constellation  signs  carrying  firebrands; 
both  are  regarded  as  lightning  beasts.  By  comparing  the 
head  of  the  figure  shown  in  PI.  25,  fig.  1 ,  with  figs.  2,  4,  5,  of 
the  same  plate,  the  reasonableness  of  the  identification  of 
this  head  as  that  of  a  macaw  and  not  that  of  a  tortoise  ap- 
pears clear.  The  same  figure  occurs  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
12a  (PI.  25,  fig.  3)  carrying  a  torch. 

In  order  to  make  this  point  clearer,  we  will  take  up  the 
consideration  of  the  glyphs  at  this  place,  rather  than  at  the 
end  of  the  section  as  usual.  As  the  macaw  in  PL  25,  fig.  1, 
has  been  hitherto  identified  as  a  turtle,  so  the  glyph  found  in 
connection  with  it  (PI.  25,  fig.  6)  has  been  considered  to  stand 
for  the  turtle.  PI.  25,  fig.  7,  is  another  drawing  of  the  same 
glyph.  By  comparing  the  markings  on  the  face  of  fig.  1,  it 
is  seen  that  a  similar  ring  surrounds  the  eye  shown  on  the 
glyph.  The  second  glyph  (PI.  25,  fig.  7)  is  better  drawn 
and  shows,  in  addition  to  the  eye  ring,  the  slightly  erectile 
feathers  at  the  back  of  the  head.  Comparison  with  the  glyphs 
representing  turtles  (PL  14,  figs.  7-10)  hitherto  confused  with 
these  macaw  glyphs  shows  differences,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  of  course  the  eye  ring  and  the  feathers  at  the 
back  of  the  head. 

Various  other  glyphs  occur  which  undoubtedly  represent 
the  heads  either  of  macaws  or  smaller  parrots.  They  are, 
for  the  most  part,  glyphs  from  the  stone  inscriptions.  A 
crest,  resembling  that  depicted  on  the  head  of  the  quetzal, 
is  found  on  a  glyph  on  Altar  Q  from  Copan  (PL  25,  fig.  10). 
The  eye  ring,  however,  seems  to  indicate  the  macaw  which 
also  has  slightly  erectile  feathers  on  the  head.  Much  doubt 
is  attached  to  the  identification  of  the  glyph  of  the  month 
Kayae  from  Stela  A,  Quirigua  (PL  25,  fig.  9).  It  resembles 
closely  the  glyphs  of  the  turtle  (PL  14,  figs.  7-9)  and  especially 
that  on  PL  14,  fig.  10.  The  Quirigua  glyph  has  a  prominent 
fleshy  tongue,  however,  like  the  parrot.  From  the  fact  that 
the  glyph  is  certainly  that  for  the  month  Kayah  and  the 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE     MAYA  CODICES  345 

Kayab  glyphs  in  the  codices  (PI.  14,  fig.  10)  resemble  the 
sign  for  a,  in  the  Landa  alphabet  which  seems  to  stand  for 
ak  (turtle) ,  we  are  led  to  identify  this  as  a  turtle  rather  than 
a  parrot. 

The  use  of  the  macaw  as  a  lightning  beast  has  already 
been  commented  upon.  The  parrot  is  also  used  in  the  co- 
dices as  a  head-dress.  As  with  several  other  birds  the  only 
places  in  the  manuscripts  where  the  whole  bird  is  shown  is 
in  connection  with  the  bearing  of  children  and  the  baptism. 
Here  the  parrot  head-dress  is  seen  on  women,  Dresden  16c 
(PL  25,  fig.  2)  and  Tro-Cortesianus  94c  (PL  25,  fig.  13). 
There  seems  to  be  an  exception  to  the  whole  bird  appearing 
as  a  head-dress  exclusively  with  women  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
26c  (PL  26,  fig.  1),  where  god  F  appears  with  a  head-dress 
composed  of  the  whole  bird.  The  bird  is  also  seen  as  a  head- 
dress on  Altar  Q  from  Copan  (PL  26,  fig.  3).  The  head  of 
the  macaw  appears  as  part  of  the  head-dress  of  god  H  in 
Dresden  11a  (PL  26,  fig.  13),  god  E  in  Dresden  lib  (PL  26, 
fig.  11),  god  F  in  Dresden  14b,  god  D  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
89a  (PL  26,  fig.  5)  and  of  women  in  Dresden  12b  (PL  26,  fig.  6) 
and  19a  (PL  26,  fig.  9).  In  the  rites  of  the  four  years  in  Tro- 
Cortesianus  37b,  there  are  two  birds  which  are  quite  different 
from  those  we  have  been  considering,  but  which  may  repre- 
sent macaws  (PL  25,  fig.  12;    PL  26,  fig.  10). 

In  the  Nuttall  Codex,  occur  several  figures  of  heavy- 
billed  birds  that  may  be  macaws  or  other  smaller  parrots 
of  the  genera  Amazona  or  Pachyrhynchus.  They  are  not, 
however,  certainly  identifiable  (PL  26,  figs.  4,  7). 

Imperial  Woodpecker  (Campephilus  imperialis).  We 
have  here  introduced  two  drawings  from  the  Nuttall  Codex 
(PL  27,  figs.  5,  6)  which  seem  to  represent  the  Imperial 
ivory-billed  woodpecker,  a  large  species  that  occurs  in  the 
forests  of  certain  parts  of  Mexico.  The  figures  show  a  long- 
billed  bird  with  acutely  pointed  tail  feathers,  a  red  crest, 
and  otherwise  black  and  white  plumage.  The  red  crest  of 
the  woodpecker  is  of  course  highly  conventionalized  in  the 
drawings  where  it  is  shown  as  of  a  number  of  erect  feathers 


346  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

instead  of  the  prominent  occipital  tuft  of  this  bird.  The 
crest  and  particularly  the  pointed  tail  feathers  and  long  beak 
combined  with  the  characteristic  coloring  seem  to  leave 
little  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  species  figured.  This 
bird  does  not  seem  to  appear  in  the  Maya  drawings. 

Raven  (Corvus  corax  sinuatus)  (?).  There  occurs  in  the 
Nuttall  Codex  a  figure  of  a  large  black  bird  (PL  27,  fig.  7) , 
which  may  be  a  black  vulture,  but  which,  from  the  presence 
of  what  appear  as  prominent  bristles  over  the  nostril,  may 
also  be  a  raven.  These  bristles  are  rather  prominent  in 
ravens  and  quite  lacking  in  the  vulture,  so  that  we  are  led 
to  identify  the  drawing  as  representing  the  former  bird. 
We  have  found  no  other  figures  that  suggest  ravens. 

Miscellaneous  Birds.  Four  drawings  of  birds  from 
the  Aubin  manuscript  are  shown  here  (PI.  27,  figs.  8-11), 
in  order  that  the  conventionalization  of  the  bird  form  may 
be  seen.  The  first  two  are  supposed  to  represent  the  parrot 
(cocho)  and  the  last  two  the  turkey  cock  (uexolotl).  There 
is  little  in  the  drawings  by  which  they  can  be  differentiated- 
In  the  codex,  the  heads  of  the  parrots  are  colored  red.  There 
is  no  doubt,  however,  about  the  identification,  as  they  occur 
in  the  same  relative  position  on  every  page  of  the  manuscript 
and  are  two  of  the  thirteen  birds  associated  with  the  thirteen 
gods,  the  "Lords  of  the  House  of  Day"  (Seler,  1900-1901, 
pp.  31-35).  From  the  foregoing,  it  may  be  seen  that  where 
there  is  no  question  about  the  identification,  the  drawing  of 
the  bird  form  is  rather  carelessly  done  and  no  great  attempt 
is  made  to  indicate  the  special  characteristics  of  the  different 
birds. 

As  has  been  shown  previously,  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  identify  without  question  many  of  the  forms  appearing 
in  the  manuscripts.  This  is  especially  true  with  birds.  In 
Tro-Cortesianus  20c,  an  unidentifiable  bird,  painted  blue, 
appears  on  the  top  of  the  staff  carried  by  god  F.  The  head- 
dress of  this  same  god  in  Tro-Cortesianus  27c  is  a  bird  form 
and  in  Tro-Cortesianus  55b,  the  tonalamatl  figure  is  a  bird 
whose  identity  cannot  be  made  out  with  certainty. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  347 


MAMMALIA 

Opossum  (Didelphis  yucatanensis,  D.  mesamericana) , 
l^igures  representing  opossums  are  not  with  certainty  iden- 
tifiable in  the  Maya  writings.  We  have  provisionally  iden- 
tified as  a  frog  the  animal  shown  in  PL  29,  fig.  6,  although 
at  first  sight  the  two  median  round  markings  might  be  taken 
to  represent  a  marsupial  pouch.  Stempell  considers  the 
animals  found  in  the  upper  division  of  Dresden  25-28  as 
■opossums  of  one  of  the  above  species,  and  this  seems  very 
possible.  They  are  shown  with  long  tails,  slightly  curved 
at  the  tips,  and  with  long  head  and  prominent  vibrissae.  A 
rather  similar  figure  is  found  in  the  Nuttall  Codex  (PL  34, 
fig.  7).  There  is  nothing,  however,  that  seems  to  preclude 
their  being  dogs  and,  in  our  opinion,  they  represent  this 
animal. 

NiNE-BANDED  ARMADILLO  (Tatu  novemciuctum) .  This  is 
the  common  species  of  armadillo  (Maya,  wets)  found  through- 
out the  warmer  portion  of  Mexico  and  Central  America; 
where  it  is  frequently  used  as  an  article  of  food,  and  its  shell- 
like  covering  is  utilized  in  various  ways.  Several  repre- 
sentations of  it  occur  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus  (PL  29,  figs.  1-4), 
where  it  is  characterized  by  its  scaly  covering,  long  ears  and 
tail,  and  the  moveable  bands  about  the  body. 

This  animal  is  associated  with  the  bee  culture,  as  it  is 
represented  twice  in  Tro-Cortesianus  103a  (PL  29,  figs.  1,  3) 
seated  below  a  bee  under  an  overhanging  roof.  The  hunting 
scenes  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus  also  show  the  armadillo;  in 
48a  (PL  29,  fig.  4)  and  in  91a  it  is  shown  in  a  pit-fall.  In 
the  last  case  the  Cauac  signs  are  clearly  seen  on  top  of  the 
trap,  whereas  in  the  former  case  the  same  signs  seem  to  be 
indicated  by  the  crosses.  Finally,  this  same  animal  occurs 
seated  in  Tro-Cortesianus  92d  (PL  29,  fig.  2)  facing  a  female 
figure.  There  seems  to  be  no  glyph  used  in  connection  with 
this  animal. 

Yucatan  Brocket  (Mazama  pandora).  Among  the 
numerous  representations  of  deer  in  the  Maya  writings,  there 


348  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

is  but  one  that  appears  to  show  the  brocket.  This  occurs  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  92a  (PI.  30,  fig.  2) ,  where  a  hoofed  animal 
with  a  single  spike-Hke  horn  is  shown,  seemingly  impaled  on 
a  stake  set  in  the  bottom  of  a  pit-fall.  As  stated  by  Stempell^ 
this  animal  from  the  character  of  its  horns  is  probably  to 
be  identified  as  a  brocket,  though  there  is  nothing  to  preclude 
its  being  a  young  spike  buck  of  some  species  of  Odocoileus. 

Yucatan  Deer  {Odocoileus  yucatanensis;  0.  thomasi). 
Several  species  of  small  deer  (Maya,  ke)  occur  in  Mexico  and 
Central  America  whose  relationships  are  not  yet  thoroughly 
understood  (Pis.  30-32).  The  species  of  Yucatan  and  south- 
ern Mexico  have  small  lyrate  antlers  with  few,  short  tines, 
rather  different  from  the  broader  type  of  the  more  northern 
species  with  well  developed  secondary  tines.  The  former  type 
of  antlers  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  conventionalized 
structure  shown  in  PL  32,  figs.  8-12.  These  probably  repre- 
sent the  Yucatan  deer  or  its  ally  Thomas's  deer  of  southern 
Mexico.  Two  of  the  figures,  both  from  the  Nuttall  Codex,, 
show  the  lower  incisor  teeth  (PI.  32,  figs.  8,  11),  though  in 
other  cases  these  are  omitted.  The  larger  part  of  the  figures 
of  deer  represent  the  does  which  have  no  antlers.  For  this 
reason  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  females  of  the  brocket 
from  those  of  the  other  species  of  deer,  if  indeed,  the  Mayas 
themselves  made  such  a  distinction.  The  characteristics 
of  deer  drawings  are  the  long  head  and  ears,  the  prominently 
elevated  tail  with  the  hair  bristling  from  its  posterior  side 
(the  characteristic  position  of  the  tail  when  the  deer  is  run- 
ning), the  hoofs,  and  less  often  the  presence  of  incisors  in 
the  lower  jaw  only  and  of  a  curious  oblong  mark  at  each  end 
of  the  eye,  possibly  representing  the  large  tear  gland. 

The  deer  plays  a  large  part  in  the  Maya  ceremonials. 
It  is  an  important,  perhaps  the  most  important  animal  offer- 
ing as  a  sacrifice  to  the  gods.  Several  pages  of  the  Tro- 
Cortesianus  (38-49)  are  given  over  to  the  hunt  and  the  animal 
usually  represented  is  the  deer,  the  hunters  are  shown,  the 
methods  of  trapping,  the  return  from  the  chase,  and  the 
rites  in  connection  with  the  animals  slain.     Tro-Cortesianus 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  349 

48b  (PL  30,  fig.  1)  shows  the  usual  method  of  trapping  where 
the  deer  is  caught  by  a  cord  around  one  of  the  fore  legs.  Tro- 
Cortesianus  91a  pictures  the  same  method  and  92a  (PL  30, 
figs.  2)  shows  where  the  deer  is  caught  on  a  spike  in  another 
type  of  trap.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  86a  (PL  31,  fig.  5)  the  deer 
appears  with  a  rope  around  his  body  held  by  a  god  who  is 
not   easily   identified. 

Interesting  descriptions  of  the  hunt  are  given  in  several 
of  the  early  accounts.*  It  will  be  noted  that  the  hunt  was 
usually  connected  with  the  religious  rites  and  the  offering 
of  deer  meat  and  various  parts  of  the  body  of  the  deer  had 
a    ceremonial    importance.     Attention    is    called    to    similar 


*Relacion  hecha  por  el  Licenciado  Palacio  al  Rey.  D.  Felipe  11  (1866, 
p.  31).  "Lo  que  hacian  en  los  sacrificios  de  la  pesca  y  caza,  era  que  tomaban 
un  venado  vivo  y  llevabanlo  al  patio  del  cu  e  iglesia  que  tenian  fuera  del 
pueblo  y  alli  lo  ahogaban  y  lo  desollaban  y  le  salaban  toda  la  sangre  en  una 
olla,  y  el  higado  y  bofes  y  buches  los  hacian  pedazos  muy  pequenos  y  apar- 
taban  el  corazon,  cabeza  y  pies,  y  mandaban  cocer  el  venado  por  si,  la 
sangre  for  si,  y  mientras  esto  se  cocia,  hacian  su  baile.  Tomaban  el  Papa 
y  sabio  la  cabeza  del  venado  por  las  orejas,  y  los  cuatro  sacerdotes  los  cuatro 
pies,  y  el  mayordomo  llevaba  un  brasero,  do  se  quemaba  el  corazon  conuli 
y  copa,  6  incensaban  al  idolo  que  tenian  puesto  y  senalado  para  la  caza  y 
pesca.  Acabado  el  mitote,  ofrecian  la  cabeza  y  pies  al  idolo  y  chamus- 
cabanla,  y  despues  de  chamuscada,  la  llevaban  a  casa  del  Papa  y  se  la 
comia  y  el  venado  y  su  sangre  comian  los  demas  sacerdotes  delante  del 
Idolo;  d  los  pescados  les  sacaban  las  tripas  y  los  quemaban  ante  el  dicho 
fdolo.     Lo  propio  era  con  los  demas  animales." 

Relacion  de  Cotuta  y  Tiholon  ( 1898,  p.  105).  *'Un  dios  que  dezian  que 
eran  benados  en  matando  un  yndio  un  benado  benia  luego  a  su  dios  y  con 
el  coragon  le  untaba  la  cara  de  sangre  y  sino  mataba  algo  aquel  dia  ybase  a 
su  casa  aquel  yndio  le  quebraba  y  dabale  de  cozes  diziendo  que  no  era  buen 
dios." 

Cogolludo  (1688,  Book  I,  Chap.  VII,  p.  43)  "Correan  tan  pocolos  venados, 
y  tan  sin  espantarse  de  la  gente,  que  los  soldados  de  a  cavallo  del  exercito 
los  alcancavan,  y  alangeavan,  muy  a  su  placer,  y  de  esta  suerte  mataron 
muchos  de  ellos,  con  que  comieron  algunos  dias  despues  .  .  .  Que  en  que 
consistia  aquella  novedad,  de  aver  tanta  maquina  de  venados,  y  estar  tan 
mansos?  Les  dieron  por  respuesta;  Que  en  aquellos  Pueblos  los  tenian 
por  sus  Dioses  k  los  venador;  porque  su  Idolo  Mayor  se  les  a  via  aparecido 
en  aquella  figura." 


350  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

practices  among  the  Lacandones,  the  inhabitants  of  the  re- 
gion of  the  Usumacinta  at  the  present  time  (Tozzer,  1907)^ 
where  the  greater  part  of  the  food  of  the  people  must,  first 
of  all,  be  offered  to  the  gods  before  it  may  be  eaten  by  the^ 
natives. 

The  figures  of  the  deer  in  the  codices  are  clearly  associated 
with  god  M,  and  the  latter  may  be  considered  a  god  of  the- 
hunt  as  well  as  a  god  of  war.  It  is  very  unusual  to  find  a 
quadruped  used  as  a  head-dress  in  any  way,  and  yet  in  several 
cases  we  find  god  M  has  the  head  of  a  deer  as  a  sort  of  head 
covering,  Tro-Cortesianus  50b  (PL  31,  fig.  6),  51c  (PL  31,. 
fig.  7)  and  68b.  In  the  first  two  cases,  the  god  seems  to  be 
supplied  with  a  bow  and  arrow.  In  a  passage  in  Landa 
(1864,  p.  290)*  there  is  a  description  of  this  very  scene. 

In  the  month  Zip,  the  hunters  each  took  an  arrow  and 
a  deer's  head  which  was  painted  blue;  thus  adorned  they- 
danced.  God  M  is  found  in  one  case  in  the  Dresden  in  con- 
nection with  the  deer.  In  Dresden  13c  the  animal  is  repre- 
sented as  female  and  is  shown  in  intercourse  with  god  M. 

An  offering  of  venison  is  frequently  pictured  in  the  manu- 
scripts.    Landa    (1864,   p.    220)  f    also   furnishes    a   parallel 
for  this.  The  haunches  of  venison  arranged  as  offerings  in  dishes^ 
are  realistically  seen  in  a  number  of  representations  of  re- 
ligious rites,  as  in  Dresden  28c  (PL  31,  fig.  14)  in  the  last 
of  the  rites  of  the  dominical  days,  35a  (PL  31,  fig.  12)  and  in. 
Tro-Cortesianus  5a  above  the  serpent  enclosing  the  body 
of  water,  65a  in  front  of  god  B  or  D  and  105b  (PL  31,  fig.  13) 
and  108a  (PL  31,  fig.  15),  both  of  which  are  in  connection- 
with  the  bee  ceremonies. 

The  head  of  the  deer,  rather  than  the  legs,  is  also  shown. 

*"Y  con  su  devocion  invocavan  los  cagadores  a  los  dioses  de  la  caga, .  .  . 
sacava  cada  uno  una  flecha  y  una  calabera  de  venado,  las  quales  los  chaces- 
untavancon  el  betun  azul;  y  untados,  vailavan  con  ellas  en  las  manosunos." 

fin  the  Muluc  years,  he  states  "davan  al  sacredote  una  pierna  de  venado" 
and  also  in  the  same  month,  "Ofrecian  a  la  imagen  pan  hecho  como  yemas- 
de  uevos  y  otros  como  coragones  de  venados,  y  otro  hecho  con  su  pimienta . 
desleida." 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  351 

as  an  offering,  in  Tro-Cortesianus  69b  with  god  B  and  Tro- 
Cortesianus  78  (PI.  31,  fig.  10)  in  the  line  of  glyphs.  The 
whole  deer  may  be  represented  as  an  offering  in  Tro-Corte- 
sianus 2b  (PL  31,  fig.  8).* 

There  are  some  examples  in  the  manuscripts  where  the 
deer  is  pictured  quite  apart  from  any  idea  of  the  hunt  or 
an  offering.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  14b,  it  is  shown  on  top  of 
the  body  of  one  of  the  large  snakes  and  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
29c  (PI.  31,  fig.  3),  it  appears  seated  on  the  end  of  a  snake- 
like curve.  The  deer  occurs  in  Tro-Cortesianus  30b  (PL  30, 
fig.  6)  in  connection  with  the  goddess  from  whose  breasts 
water  is  flowing.  God  B  appears  in  Dresden  41c  (PL  31, 
fig.  1)  seated  on  a  red  deer.  The  same  animal  is  also  to  be 
noted  in  Dresden  60a  (PL  30,  fig.  5)  in  connection  with  the 
combat  of  the  planets,  f  A  deer  is  seen  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
92d  seated  on  a  mat  opposite  a  female  figure  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  armadillo  on  the  same  page  and  a  dog  on  the 
preceding  page.  These,  as  previously  noted,  probably  refer 
to  cohabitation.  On  PL  32,  fig.  9,  is  a  deer  from  the  Pere- 
sianus  and  PL  32,  fig.  12,  shows  another  from  Stela  N,  east, 
from  Copan. 

The  Nahua  day  Magatl  signifies  deer  and  we  naturally 
find  a  large  number  of  glyphs  representing  this  animal  among 
the  day  signs  in  the  Mexican  manuscripts  (PL  31,  fig.  9;  PL 
32,  figs.  8,  10,  11). 

Yucatan  Peccary  {Tayassu  angulatum  yucatanense;  T, 
ringens) .  Peccaries  (Maya,  qeqem)  of  the  T.  angulatum  group 
are  common  in  Mexico  and  Yucatan,  and  a  number  of  local 
forms  have  been  named.  The  white-lipped  peccaries  also 
occur,  but  in  the  figures  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  the 
species.  These  animals  are  characterized  by  their  prominent 
snout,  curly  tail,  bristling  dorsal  crest,  and  rather  formidable 
tusks,  as  well  as  by  the  possession  of  hoofs.  By  these  marks 
most  of  the  figures  are  readily  identifiable  (PL  32,  fig.  1;  PL 

*Forstemann  (1902,  p.  20)  identifies  this  animal  as  a  rabbit  I 
fForstemann  identifies  this  animal  as  a  dog. 


352  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

33,  figs.  1,  2,  4-6,  9).  The  tail  is,  however,  often  omitted 
as  well  as  the  erect  line  of  bristles  down  the  back.  The  pres- 
ence of  hoofs  and  the  possession  of  a  truncated  pig-like  snout 
are  sufficiently  characteristic.  In  the  Dresden  Codex  occur 
several  figures  of  undoubted  peccaries.  Two  of  these  are 
pictured  in  PL  32,  figs.  2,  4.  In  each  the  hoofs  and  curly- 
tail  appear,  and  in  the  latter  figure  the  bristling  back  is  con- 
ventionally drawn  by  a  series  of  serrations.  These  marks 
are  sufficient  to  identify  the  animals.  Their  heads  are  further 
conventionalized,  however,  by  a  great  exaggeration  of  the 
snout  beyond  that  slightly  indicated  in  PL  32,  fig.  1,  and  PL 
33,  figs.  6,  9.  Other  representations  of  the  peccary,  are  shown 
in  PL  32,  fig.  5,  a  man  with  a  peccary's  head,  and  fig.  7  in 
which  the  animal 's  hoofs  are  replaced  by  human  hands  and 
feet.  In  both  cases  the  form  of  the  head  remains  charac- 
teristic. A  curious  combination  is  shown  in  PL  32,  fig.  3, 
an  animal  whose  head  and  fore  feet  are  those  of  a  peccary,  while 
the  hind  feet  have  five  toes,  and  there  is  a  long  tail.  The 
addition  of  what  look  like  scales  is  found  in  a  figure  from 
the  Dresden  (PL  32,  fig.  6). 

The  peccary  is  found  in  several  different  connections  in 
the  manuscripts.  As  deer  are  found  associated  with  the  hunt, 
so,  but  to  a  much  more  limited  extent,  the  peccary.  It  is 
represented  pictured  as  being  captured  in  snares  of  the  familiar 
''jerk-up"  type.  Similar  drawings  show  this  animal  caught 
by  the  foreleg  and  held  partially  suspended,  Tro-Cortesianus 
49a  (PL  33,  fig.  9),*  49c  (PL  33,  fig.  1),  and  93a  (PL  33,  fig.  4). 
Tro-Cortesianus  41b  also  shows  the  peccary  associated  with 
hunting  scenes.  Another  realistic  drawing  of  this  animal 
in  Dresden  62  (PL  33,  fig.  6)t  represents  him  as  seated  on 
the  open  jaws  of  a  serpent  connected  with  a  long  number 
series.  We  are  unable  to  explain  the  signification  of  the 
appearance  of  the  animal  in  this  connection.     The  peccary 

♦This  animal  has  been  identified  by  Stempell  as  an  agouti  notwithstand- 
ing the  hoofs  and  tusks. 

fForstemann  (1906,.  p.  228)  suggests  that  this  animal  is  a  bear. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  353 

is  pictured  in  Tro-Cortesianus  27b  (PL  33,  fig.  5)  seated  on 
the  left  hand  of  the  goddess  from  whose  breasts  water  is 
flowing. 

The  peccary  seems  to  be  associated  with  the  sky,  as  it 
is  seen  in  a  conventionaHzed  form  in  four  instances  (Dresden 
44b,  45b,  (PL  32,  fig.  4)  coming  from  a  band  of  constellation 
signs  and  in  Dresden  68a  (PL  32,  fig.  2)  coming  from  a  similar 
band  with  god  E  sitting  underneath.*  Above  each  of  these 
conventionalized  figures  occur  the  corresponding  glyph 
forms  (PL  33,  figs.  7,  8),  which  show  merely  the  head  with 
the  exaggerated  upturned  snout.  There  is  a  striking  resem- 
blance between  these  snouts  and  those  of  the  stone  mask- 
like figures  so  frequently  represented  as  a  fa9ade  decoration 
in  northern  Yucatan.  The  presence  in  the  mouths  of  the 
faces  there  represented  of  a  recurved  tusk  in  addition  to  other 
teeth  is  a  further  resemblance  to  the  drawings  of  peccaries. 
Stempell  (1908,  p.  718)  has  reproduced  a  photograph  of  these 
extraordinary  carvings  and  considers  them  the  heads  of  mas- 
todons, apparently  solely  on  account  of  the  shape  of  the  up- 
turned snout,  whose  tip  in  many  of  the  carvings  turns  forward. 
They  certainly  do  not  represent  the  heads  of  mastodons,  but 
we  are  not  ready  to  say  that  the  peccary  is  the  prototype  of 
these  carvings,  although  the  similarity  between  the  glyphs 
(PL  33,  figs.  7,  8)  and  the  masks  is  worthy  of  note.  One 
point  which  does  not  favor  this  explanation  is  the  fact  that 
on  the  eastern  fa9ade  of  the  Monjas  at  Chichen  Itza  where  the 
mask-like  panel  is  seen  at  its  best,  we  find  a  reaHstic  drawing 
of  a  peccary  (PL  33,  fig.  2)  on  the  band  of  glyphs  over  the 
doorway,  and  it  in  no  way  suggests  the  head  on  the  panel 
and  is  quite  different  from  the  head  already  noted  as  the 
glyph  of  the  peccary  in  the  codices. 

Baird's  Tapir  (Tapirella  bairdi).  No  undoubted  repre- 
sentations of  tapirs  occur  in  the  manuscripts  here  considered. 

♦Attention  is  called  to  the  curious  half-human,  half-animal  figure  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  2a  which  may  suggest  the  figures  in  Dresden  44a,  45a  and 
which  are  here  identified  as  peccaries.     Both  are  descending  from  the  band 
of  constellation  signs  and  the  heads  of  each  are  not  greatly  dissimilar. 
IV.     23 


354  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

Possibly  tapirs  did  not  live  in  the  country  occupied  by  the 
Maya  peoples.  At  the  present  time  they  are  found  only  to 
the  south  of  Yucatan.  In  Central  America  Baird's  and 
Dow's  tapirs  are  native,  the  latter,  however,  more  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  We  have  included  a  drawing  of  an  earthen- 
ware vessel  (PI.  28,  fig.  1)  that  represents  a  tapir,  about 
whose  neck  is  a  string  of  Oliva  shells.  The  short  prehensile 
trunk  of  the  tapir  is  well  made  and  the  hoofs  are  likewise 
shown.  A  greatly  elongated  nose  is  found  in  many  of  the 
drawings  of  the  deities,  but  it  does  not  seem  clear  that  these 
represent  trunks  of  tapirs,  or,  as  suggested  by  Stempell, 
mastodons!  Two  such  heads  are.  shown  in  PL  39,  figs.  7,  9. 
These  offer  a  considerable  superficial  resemblance  to  that  of 
a  tapir,  but  as  no  other  drawings  that  might  be  considered 
to  represent  this  animal  are  found,  it  seems  very  questionable 
if  the  long  noses  are  other  than  parts  of  grotesque  masks. 
The  superficial  resemblance  of  the  curious  nose  pieces  of  the 
masks  on  the  panel  of  the  Maya  fa9ades  to  elephants*  trunks 
does  not  seem  to  us  especially  significant,  as  otherwise  the 
carvings  are  quite  unlike  elephants.  They  have  no  great 
tusks  as  an  elephant  should,  but,  instead,  short  recurved 
teeth  similar  to  those  representing  peccary  tusks,  as  already 
pointed  out. 

Rabbit  (Sylvilagus  or  Lepus).  Rabbits  and  hares  from 
their  familiarity,  their  long  ears,  and  their  peculiar  method 
of  locomotion,  seem  always  to  attract  the  notice  of  primitive 
peoples.  Several  species  occur  in  Mexico,  including  the  Marsh 
rabbit  (Sylvilagus  truei;  S.  insonus),  various  races  of  the 
Cottontail  rabbit  {S.  floridanus  connectens;  S.  /.  chiapensis, 
S.  f.  yucatanicus;  S.  aztecus;  S.  orizahae,  etc.)  and  several 
Jack  rabbits  (Lepus  alleni  pallitans;  L.  callotis  flavigularis , 
L.  asellus).  It  is,  of  course,  quite  impossible  to  determine 
to  which  of  these  species  belong  the  few  representations 
found.  Several  drawings,  shown  in  PI.  30,  figs.  3,  4,  7,  8,  are 
at  once  identifiable  as  rabbits  from  their  long  ears,  round 
heads,  and  the  presence  of  the  prominent  gnawing  teeth.* 
*Forstemanii  (1906,  p.  229)  suggests  thatfig.  8  is  a  walrus! 


ANIMAL  FIGUEES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  355 

In  two  of  the  figures  (PL  30,  figs.  7,  8),  the  entire  animal  is 
shown,  sitting  erect  on  its  haunches,  the  first  with  one  ear 
in  advance  of  the  other,  a  trait  more  characteristic  of  the 
jack  rabbit  than  of  the  short-eared  rabbits.  For  convenience 
of  comparison,  we  have  placed  beside  these  two  figures  one 
of  a  deer  in  much  the  same  position.  It  is  at  once  distin- 
guished, however,  by  its  long  head,  longer  bushy  tail,  and 
by  the  marks  at  each  end  of  the  eye.  What  at  first  sight 
appear  to  be  two  gnawing  teeth  of  the  rabbit  seem  to  be  the 
incisors  of  the  lower  jaw.  This  is  the  animal  identified  by 
Stempell  as  a  dog. 

The  animal  shown  to  be  a  rabbit  in  Dresden  61  (PI.  30, 
fig.  8)  is  pictured  seated  on  the  open  jaws  of  a  serpent  in  the 
same  way  as  the  peccary  on  the  following  page.  These  two 
animals,  together  with  two  representations  of  god  B  and  the 
black  god  (Dresden  61),  are  each  clearly  connected  with  the 
serpents  on  which  they  are  sitting. 

The  Nahua  day  Tochtli  signifies  rabbit  and  naturally  the 
animal  occurs  throughout  the  Mexican  manuscripts  as  repre- 
senting this  day  (PL  30,  figs.  3,  4). 

Other  Rodents.  We  have  included  in  PL  29,  figs.  5, 
7,  8,  three  undetermined  mammals.  The  second  of  these 
is  characterized  by  the  two  prominent  gnawing  teeth  of  a 
rodent  and  by  its  long  tail.  It  may  represent  a  pack  rat 
(Neotoma)  of  which  many  species  are  described  from  Mexico. 
In  its  rounded  ears  and  long  tail,  fig.  5  somewhat  resembles 
fig.  7,  but  it  lacks  the  gnawing  incisors.  Still  less  satisfactory 
is  fig.  8  from  Tro-Cortesianus  24d,  at  whose  identity  it  seems 
unsafe  to  hazard  a  guess.  It  is  shown  as  eating  the  corn 
being  sowed  by  god  D. 

Jaguar  {Felis  hernandezi;  F.  h.  goldmani).  Through- 
out its  range,  the  jaguar  (Maya,  balam  or  tsakmul)  is  the 
most  dreaded  of  the  carnivorous  mammals.  It  is,  therefore, 
natural  that  the  Mayas  held  it  in  great  awe  and  used  it  as 
a  symbol  of  strength  and  courage.  A  few  characteristic 
figures  are  shown  in  PL  34,  figs.  1-3;  PL  35,  figs.  5-14.  The 
species  represented  is  probably  Felis  hernandezi,  the  Mexican 


356  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

race  of  jaguar,  or  one  or  the  other  of  the  more  or  less  nominal 
varieties  named  from  Central  America.  The  distinguishing 
mark  of  the  jaguar,  in  addition  to  the  general  form  with  the 
long  tail,  short  ears  and  claws,  is  the  presence  of  the  rosette- 
like spots.  These  are  variously  conventionalized  as  solid 
black  markings,  as  small  circles,  or  as  a  central  spot  ringed 
by  a  circle  of  dots  (PL  35,  fig.  12).  Frequently  the  solid 
black  spots  are  used,  either  in  a  line  down  the  back  and  tail 
or  scattered  over  the  body.  The  tip  of  the  tail  is  character- 
istically black,  and  the  teeth  are  often  prominent.  Such  a 
figure  as  this  (PL  35,  fig.  10)  Stempell  considers  to  be  a  water 
opossum  (Chironectes) ,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  held  by  the 
goddess  from  whose  breast  water  is  flowing.  This  can  hardly 
be,  however,  for  not  only  are  the  markings  unlike  those  of 
the  water  opossum,  but  the  large  canine  tooth  indicates  a 
large  carnivore.  Moreover,  the  water  opossum  is  a  small 
animal,  hardly  as  big  as  a  rat,  of  shy  and  retiring  habits, 
and  so  is  unlikely  to  figure  in  the  drawings  of  the  Mayas. 

As  for  the  significance  of  the  jaguar  in  the  life  of  the 
Mayas,  it  may  be  said  that  this  animal  seems  to  have  played 
a  most  prominent  part.  At  Chichen  Itza,  the  building  on 
top  of  the  southern  end  of  the  eastern  wall  of  the  Ball  Court, 
usually  called  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers,  has  a  line  of  jaguars 
carved  in  stone  as  frieze  around  the  outside  of  the  building, 
and  in  the  Lower  Chamber  of  the  same  structure,  the  figure 
of  a  jaguar  (Maudslay,  III,  PL  43)  serves  as  an  altar.  The 
front  legs  and  the  head  of  a  jaguar  often  are  seen  as  the  sup- 
port of  a  seat  or  altar  on  which  a  god  is  represented  as  at 
Palenque  in  the  Palace,  House  E  (Maudslay,  IV,  PL  44) 
and  in  the  Temple  of  the  Beau  Relief  (Holmes,  1895-1897, 
PL  20).  Altar  F  at  Copan  (PL  35,  fig.  7)  shows  the  same  idea. 
The  head  of  a  puma  or  jaguar  (PL  34,  fig.  6)  appears  in  the 
bas-relief  of  the  Lower  Chamber  of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers 
evidently  representing  a  part  of  an  altar.  A  realistic  carving 
of  a  jaguar  was  found  on  a  stone  near  the  Temple  of  the 
Cones  at  Chichen  Itza  (Maudslay,  III,  PL  52,  fig.  a),  and  an- 
other occurs  near  the  present  hacienda  of  Chichen  Itza  carved 
in  relief  on  a  ledge  of  rock. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE   MAYA  CODICES  357 

In  the  Maya  manuscripts  the  jaguar  appears  in  a  number 
of  connections.  Its  mythological  character  is  shown  in 
Dresden  8a  (PL  35,  fig.  5),  where  it  is  pictured  as  the  tonala- 
matl  figure.  The  day  reached  here  in  the  reckoning  is  /a:, 
and  this  corresponds  to  the  Nahua  Oceolotl,  which  means 
jaguar.  In  Dresden  26,  in  the  pages  showing  the  ceremonies 
of  the  years,  the  jaguar  is  carried  on  the  back  of  the  priest, 
evidently  representing  one  of  the  year  bearers  {Ti  cuch  haab), 
Balam,  the  name  of  the  jaguar,  is  the  title  given  to  the  four 
Bacabs  or  Chacs,  the  gods  of  the  four  cardinal  points.  In 
Tro-Cortesianus  64a,  two  jaguar  heads  are  noted  as  the  end 
of  curious  bands  of  Caban  signs  over  a  flaming  pot.  The 
second  one  is  shown  as  dead.  A  jaguar  head  is  employed 
in  two  places  in  the  Tro-Cortesianus,  34a  and  36a,  as  a  head- 
dress for  a  god  who  is  in  the  act  of  sowing  corn.  This  animal 
appears  very  infrequently  in  the  pages  of  the  Tro-Cortesianus 
given  over  to  the  hunting  scenes,  41c,  40c,  43b,  and,  even 
here,  it  never  appears  in  the  same  way  as  the  deer  and  peccary, 
as  an  animal  for  sacrifice. 

The  jaguar  as  a  predacious  beast  is  noted  in  Tro-Corte- 
sianus 28b  (PI.  35,  fig.  8),  where  it  is  attacking  god  F  in  a 
similar  way  as  the  vultures  in  the  preceding  picture.  The 
jaguar  appears  in  Tro-Cortesianus  30b  (PL  35,  fig.  10)  seated 
on  the  right  hand  of  the  goddess  from  whose  breasts  water 
is  flowing.  The  figure  in  Tro-Cortesianus  12b  between  the 
various  offerings  may  be  a  jaguar  or  a  dog,  more  probably 
from  its  connection  with  an  offering,  the  dog.  A  curious 
modification  of  the  jaguar  may  be  shown  in  Tro-Cortesianus 
20a  (PL  34,  fig.  2),  where  a  god  is  seated  on  the  gaping  jaws 
of  some  animal  whose  identity  is  uncertain.  It  may  be  a 
serpent,  although  the  black-tipped  tail  from  which  the  head 
appears  to  come  certainly  suggests  the  jaguar. 

There  are  several  carved  glyphs  in  stone  that  probably 
represent  jaguars.  Two  of  these  (PL  28,  fig.  4;  PL  35,  fig.  9) 
have  the  characteristic  round  spots,  but  others  are  unmarked, 
and  suggest  the  jaguar  by  their  general  character  only  (PL  35, 
fig.  6).     This  latter  may,  of  course,  represent  the  puma  quite 


358  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

as  well.  A  realistic  jaguar  head  appears  as  a  glyph  in  Tro- 
Cortesianus  2a  (PL  35,  fig.  13).  The  more  usual  glyph  for 
the  jaguar  is  more  highly  conventionalized,  although  the 
spots  and  the  short  rounded  ear  are  still  characteristic  (PL  35, 
fig.  11).  A  slight  modification  of  this  glyph  appears  in  Dres- 
den 8a  in  connection  with  the  full  drawing  of  the  animal 
below. 

The  Nahua  day  Oceolotl,  as  already  noted,  means  jaguar, 
and  the  jaguar  glyph  is  found  among  the  day  signs  (PL  34, 
fig.  3).  Seler  (1904,  p.  379)  associates  the  jaguar  in  the 
Vaticanus  and  the  Bologna  with  Tezcatlipoca.  He  notes 
that  the  second  age  of  the  world,  in  which  the  giants  lived 
and  in  which  Tezcatlipoca  shone  as  the  sun,  is  called  the 
*' jaguar  sun."  Tezcatlipoca  is  supposed  to  have  changed 
himself  into  a  jaguar. 

Puma  {Felis  bangsi  costaricensis) .  As  shown  by  Stempell, 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  some  one  of  the  mainly  nominal 
species  of  Central  American  puma  is  represented  in  Dresden 
47  (PL  34,  fig.  7).  This  animal  is  colored  reddish  in  the 
original,  as  is  the  puma,  is  without  spots,  although  the  tip 
of  the  tail,  as  in  the  pictures  of  the  jaguar,  is  black.  The 
animal  is  represented  as  being  transfixed  with  a  spear.* 
Another  animal  colored  red  in  Dresden  41c  seems  to  repre- 
sent a  puma.  God  B  is  shown  seated  upon  him.  A  crude 
figure  from  the  Painted  Chamber  of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers 
(PL  34,  fig.  5)  is  probably  the  same  species  of  puma.  The 
cleverly  executed  head,  shown  in  profile  in  PL  34,  fig.  6,  is  also 
perhaps  the  same  animal,  although  it  may  possibly  represent 
the  jaguar.  One  or  the  other  of  these  two  cats  is  also  in- 
tended, in  PL  34,  fig.  4,  a  drawing  of  a  piece  of  pottery. 

Coyote  (Canis).  Two  figures  from  the  Nuttall  Codex 
have  been  included  as  possibly  representing  coyotes  (PL  35, 
figs.  1,  2).  They  are  chiefly  characterized  by  their  prominent 
ears  and  bristling  hair,  and  seem  to  be  engaged  in  active  com- 
bat.    Coyotes  of  several  species  occur  in  Mexico  and  though 

'  *Seler  (1904)  gives  an  interesting  explanation  of  the  reason  why  the 
puma  and  the  other  corresponding  figures  are  shown  hit  with  a  spear. 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  359 

not  generally  regarded  as  aggressive  animals  are  of  a  preda- 
cious nature.  No  drawings  of  the  coyote  have  been  noted 
in  the  Maya  codices. 

Dog  (Canis).  The  dog  (Maya,  peq)  evidently  played  an 
important  part  in  the  life  of  the  Mayas  as  it  does-  with  other 
races  of  men  generally.  On  Pis.  36,  37,  we  have  included 
■certain  figures  of  dogs  from  several  manuscripts.  These 
may  represent  two  breeds,  for  it  is  well  known  that  both  a 
hairy  and  a  hairless  variety  were  found  by  the  early  discov- 
■erers  in  Mexico.*  Hairiness  is  more  or  less  clearly  indicated 
in  the  following  figures:— PL  36,  figs.  1-7,  12;  PL  37,  figs. 
4,  5.  The  figures  of  dogs  usually  agree  in  having  a  black 
mark  about  the  eyes  that  frequently  is  produced  as  a  down- 
ward curved  tongue  from  the  posterior  canthus.  Sometimes, 
AS  in  PL  37,  figs.  1-3,  10,  this  tongue  is  not  blackened.  Com- 
monly also  black  patches  are  elsewhere  distributed  on  the 
body,  generally  on  the  back.  These  markings  are  probably 
the  patches  of  color  separated  by  white  areas  that  occur  fre- 
quently in  dogs  or  other  animals  after  long  domestication. f 
We  have  included  among  the  figures  of  dogs  two  in  which 
1ihe  eye  is  differently  represented  and  which  are  unspotted 
(PL  37,  figs.  4,  6).  These  modifications  may  have  some 
special  significance,  but  otherwise  the  animals  appear  most 
closely  to  represent  dogs. 

We  have  already  suggested  that  the  animal  attired  in 
man's  clothing,  and  walking  erect  in  Dresden  25a-28a  is 
likewise  a  dog,  though  Stempell  believes  it  to  represent  the 
opossum  in  support  of  which  he  calls  attention  to  its  promi- 
nent vibrissae  and  slightly  curled  tail. 

*Relacion  de  la  Ciudad  de  Merida  (1898,  p.  63):  "Ay  perros  naturales 
dela  tierra  que  no  tienen  pelo  ninguno,  y  no  ladran,  que  tienen  los  dientes 
ralos  e  agudos,  las  orejas  pequenas,  tiesas  y  levantadas^a  estos  engordan 
los  yndios  para  comer  y  los  tienen  por  gran  rregalo — estos  se  juntan  con 
los  perros  de  espana  y  enjendran  y  los  mestizos  que  dellos  proceden  ladran 
y  tienen  pelo  y  tambien  los  comen  los  yndios  cano  alos  demas,  y  tambien  los 
yndios  tienen  otra  suerte  de  perros  que  tienen  pelo  pero  tan  poco  ladran  y 
son  del  mesmo  tamano  que  los  demas." 

fBrinton  (1895,  p.  72)  regards  these  spots  as  representing  stars. 


360  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

The  dog  played  a  large  part  in  the  religion  both  of  the 
Mayas  and  the  Mexican  peoples.  It  was  connected  especially 
with  the  idea  of  death  and  destruction.  The  Lacandones  of 
the  present  time  make  a  small  figure  of  a  dog  to  place  on 
the  grave  (Tozzer,  1907,  p.  47).  This  is  but  one  of  the  many 
survivals  of  the  ancient  pre-Columbian  religion  found  among 
this  people.  The  dog  was  regarded  as  the  messenger  to 
prepare  the  way  to  the  other  world.  Seler  (1900-1901,  pp. 
82-83)  gives  an  interesting  parallel  of  the  Nahua  idea  of  the 
dog  and  his  connection  with  death.  He  paraphrases  Sahagun 
as  follows:  ''The  native  Mexican  dogs  barked,  wagged  their 
tails,  in  a  word,  behaved  in  all  respects  like  our  own  dogs, 
were  kept  by  the  Mexicans  not  only  as  house  companions, 
but  above  all,  for  the  shambles,  and  also  in  Yucatan  and  on 
the  coast  land  for  sacrifice.  The  importance  that  the  dog 
had  acquired  in  the  funeral  rites  may  perhaps  have  originated 
in  the  fact  that,  as  the  departed  of  both  sexes  were  accom- 
panied by  their  effects,  the  prince  by  the  women  and  slaves 
in  his  service,  so  the  dog  was  assigned  to  the  grave  as  his 
master's  associate,  friend,  and  guard,  and  that  the  persistence 
of  this  custom  in  course  of  time  created  the  belief  that  the 
dog  stood  in  some  special  relation  to  the  kingdom  of  the  dead. 
It  may  also  be  that,  simply  because  it  was  the  practice  to 
burn  the  dead,  the  dog  was  looked  on  as  the  Fire  God's  ani- 
mal and  the  emblem  of  fire,  the  natives  got  accustomed  to 
speak  of  him  as  the  messenger  to  prepare  the  way  in  the 
kingdom  of  the  dead,  and  thus  eventually  to  regard  him  as 
such.  At  the  time  when  the  Spaniards  made  their  acquaint- 
ance, it  was  the  constant  practice  of  the  Mexicans  to  commit 
to  the  grave  with  the  dead  a  dog  who  had  to  be  of  a  red- 
yellow  color,  and  had  a  string  of  unspun  cotton  round  his 
neck,  and  was  first  killed  by  the  thrust  of  a  dart  in  his  throat. 
The  Mexicans  believed  that  four  years  after  death,  when  the 
soul  had  already  passed  through  many  dangers  on  its  way 
to  the  underworld,  it  came  at  last  to  the  bank  of  a  great  river/ 
the  Chicunauhapan,  which  encircled  the  underworld  proper. 
The  souls  could  get  across  this  river  only  when  they  were 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  361 

awaited  by  their  little  dog,  who,  recognizing  his  master  on 
the  opposite  side,  rushed  into  the  water  to  bring  him  over." 
(Sahagun,  3  Appendix,  Chap.  I.) 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  foregoing,  there  are  abun- 
dant evidences  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  presence  of  the  dog 
in  the  various  religious  rites  and  especially  those  which  have 
to  do  with  the  other  world,  the  Kingdom  of  the  Dead.  In 
Tro-Cortesianus  35b,  36b,  37a,  37b,  the  pages  showing  the 
rites  of  the  four  years,  the  dog  appears  in  various  attitudes. 
In  35b  and  36b,  it  bears  on  his  back  the  Imix  and  Kan  signs, 
in  37a  (PL  37,  fig.  8)  it  is  shown  as  beating  a  drum  and  sing- 
ing, in  37b  (PI.  36,  fig.  2)  it  is  beside  a  bowl  containing  Kan 
signs.  In  all  of  these  places,  the  dogs  seem  to  be  represented 
among  the  various  birds  and  animals  which  are  to  be  sacri- 
ficed for  the  new  years.  Landa  (1864,  p.  216)*  states  that 
in  the  Kan  year  a  dog  was  sacrificed.  In  the  Muluc  year, 
Landa  (1864,  p.  222)  f  records  that  they  offered  dogs  made 
of  clay  with  bread  upon  their  backs  and  a  perrito  which  had 
black  shoulders  and  was  a  virgin.  It  has  already  been  noted 
that  two  of  the  dogs  represented  in  Tro-Cortesianus  35b 
and  36b  have  a  Kan  and  Imix  sign  fastened  to  the  back. 
Moreover,  we  have  also  pointed  out  that  the  Kan  sign  fre- 
quently seems  to  have  the  meaning  of  maize  or  bread.  It 
will  be  noted  that  in  Tro-Cortesianus  36b  two  human  feet 
are  shown  on  each  of  which  is  a  dog-like  animal. J  These 
may  indicate  the  dance  in  which  dogs  were  carried  as  noted 
by  Landa.     Cogolludo  (1688,  p.  184)  §  also  mentions  a  similar 

*"Y  que  le  sacrificassen  un  perro  o  un  hombre.  .  .  porque  hazian  en  el 
patio  del  templo  un  gran  monton  de  piedras  y  ponian  al  hombre  o  perro 
que  avian  de  sacrificiar  en  alguna  cosa  mas  alta  que  el." 

t  "Avian  de  ofrescerle  perros  hechos  de  barro  con  pan  en  las  espaldas,  y 
avian  de  vailar  con  ellos  en  las  manos  las  viejas  y  sacrificarle  un  perrito  que 
tuviesse  las  espaldas  negras  y  fuesse  virgen." 

J  These  might  quite  as  well  be  rabbits  as  dogs. 

§"De  los  Indios  de  Cozumel  dize,  que  aun  en  su  tiempo  eran  grandes 
Idolatras,  y  usaban  un  bayle  de  su  gentilidad,  en  el  qual  flechaban  un 
perro  q  auian  de  sacrificar." 


362  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

dance.  Still  another  reference  in  Landa  (1864,  p.  260)* 
mentions  that  in  the  months  Muan  and  Pax  dogs  were  sac- 
rificed to  the  deities. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  identification  of 
the  four  priests  at  the  top  of  Dresden  25-28  as  having  the 
heads  of  dogs  rather  than  of  opossums.  It  may  be  suggested 
that  in  the  role  of  the  conductor  to  the  other  world  the  dog 
is  represented  as  carrying  on  his  back  in  each  case  the  year 
which  has  just  been  completed  and  therefore  is  dead.  This, 
of  course,  would  necessitate  the  identification  of  god  B,  the 
jaguar,  god  E,  and  god  A  as  representing  in  turn  the  four 
years. 

The  dog,  according  to  Sahagun's  account  (p.  360)  was 
looked  upon  as  the  "Fire  God's  animal/'  and  as  an  emblem 
of  fire.  This  idea  is  seen  frequently  in  the  Maya  manuscripts 
where  the  dog  with  firebrands  in  his  paws  or  attached  to  his 
tail  is  coming  head  downward  from  a  line  of  constellation 
signs,  as  in  Dresden  36a  (PL  37,  fig.  3),  40b  (PL  37,  fig.  1) 
or  is  standing  beneath  similar  signs  as  in  Dresden  39a  (PL  37, 
iig.  2)  and  probably  in  Tro-Cortesianus  13a.  His  tail  alone 
has  the  firebrand  in  Tro-Cortesianus  36b.  Firebrands  are 
carried  by  figures  which  have  been  identified  by  us  as  dogs 
in  Tro-Cortesianus  24c  (PL  37,  fig.  6),  25c,  and  90a.  Here 
the  animal  is  represented  as  in  the  air  holding  his  firebrands 
over  a  blazing  altar  beside  which  god  F  is  seated.  In  two 
out  of  the  four  cases,  F  is  shown  as  dead.  The  dog  in  these 
latter  examples  has  his  eye  composed  of  the  Akhal  sign.  This 
same  glyph  can  also  be  made  out  with  difficulty  on  the  fore- 
head of  the  dog  shown  in  Dresden  36a  (PL  37,  fig.  3).  As 
has  been  noted,  Akhal  means  night  and  possibly  death  as 
well.  It  is  certain  that  destruction  is  indicated  in  the  pre- 
ceding examples  as  well  as  in  Tro-Cortesianus  87a  and  88a 
(PL  37,  fig.  4)  where  the  dog  is  holding  four  human  figures 
by  the  hair. 

Beyer  (1908,  pp.  419-422)  has  identified  the  dog  as  the 

*"Donde  sacrificavan  un  perro,  manchado  por  la  color  del  cacao  .  .  .  y 
ofrecianles  yguanas  de  las  azules  y  ciertas  plumas  de  un  paxaro." 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE    MAYA  CODICES  363 

Pleiades  and  various  other  suggestions  have  been  made  that 
the  dog  represents  some  constellation.  The  more  common 
form  of  spotted  dog  is  shown  as  a  single  tonalamatl  figure  in 
Tro-Cortesianus  25d  and  27d  (PL  36,  fig.  14)  and  an  unspotted 
variety  in  Dresden  7a  (PI.  37,  fig.  10).  The  dog  is  frequently- 
shown  as  copulating  with  another  animal  or  with  a  female 
figure.  In  Dresden  13c  (PL  37,  fig.  7)  the  second  figure  is 
a  vulture,  in  Dresden  21b  (PL  37,  fig.  5)  it  i&  a  woman  and  also 
in  Tro-Cortesianus  91c  (PL  36,  fig.  12). 

The  same  animal  appears  also  in  a  number  of 
scenes  not  included  in  the  preceding.  In  Tro-Cortesianus 
88c  (PL  36,  fig.  1)  a  dog  is  seated  on  a  crab  and  seems  to  be 
connected  with  the  idea  of  the  north  as  this  sign  is  noted 
above  the  figure;  in  Tro-Cortesianus  66b  (PL  36,  fig.  3)  a 
-dog  and  another  animal  (PL  32,  fig.  3)  are  seated  back  to 
l^ack  under  a  shelter;  in  Tro-Cortesianus  30b  a  dog  is  seated 
•on  the  right  foot  of  the  woman  from  whose  breasts  water  is 
streaming;  in  Dresden  29a  (PL  37,  fig.  12)  god  B  is  shown 
•seated  on  a  dog;  and,  finally,  in  Dresden  30a  (PL  37,  fig.  9) 
god  B  holds  the  bound  dog  by  the  tail  over  an  altar. 

The  dog  appears  from  numerous  references  to  be  used  in 
connection  with  a  prayer  for  rain.  Comargo  (1843)  in  his 
history  of  Tlaxcallan  states  that  when  rain  failed,  a  proces- 
sion was  held  in  which  a  number  of  hairless  dogs  were  carried 
on  decorated  litters  to  a  place  devoted  to  their  use.  There 
they  were  sacrificed  to  the  god  of  water  and  the  bodies  were 
eaten. 

The  glyphs  associated  with  the  dog  are  interesting  as  we 
have,  as  in  the  case  with  the  deer,  one  showing  a  realistic 
drawing  of  a  dog's  head  in  Tro-Cortesianus  91  d  (PL  37,  fig.  13) 
and  several  others  far  more  difficult  of  interpretation.  PL 
37,  fig.  11,  seems  to  stand  for  the  dog  as  it  is  found  in  several 
places  where  the  dog  appears  below,  Dresden  21b,  40b.  It 
is  thought  by  some  to  represent  the  ribs  of  a  dog  which  appear 
in  somewhat  similar  fashion  in  PL  37,  fig.  8.     Some  of  the 


364  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

glyphs  in  the  codices  for  the  month  Kankin  show  the  same 
element   (text  figs.  8-10). 

The  Nahua  day  sign  Itzcuintli  signifies  dog  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  Maya  Oc  (PI.  36,  figs.  9-11).  This  in  turn  is 
considered  by  many  to  stand  for  the  dog  as  the  animal  of 


FIG8.  8,  9,  10. 
GLYPHS  FOR  MAYA  MONTH  KANKIN  (RIBS  OF  DOG). 

death  and  signifies  the  end.  The  sore,  cropped  ears  of  the 
domesticated  dog  are  supposed  to  be  represented  in  this 
sign,  Oc.  Nahua  and  other  day  signs  for  Itzcuintli  (dog)  are 
shown  in  PL  36,  figs.  4,  6,  13. 

Bear  (Ursus  machetes;  U.  horriaeus).  In  northern 
Mexico,  in  Chihuahua  and  Sonora,  occur  a  black  bear  {Ursus 
machetes)  and  the  Sonoran  grizzly  (C7.  horriaeus).  It  is 
unlikely  that  the  Mayas  had  much  acquaintance  with  these 
animals  since  they  range  more  to  the  northward  than  the 
area  of  Maya  occupation.  Stempell  has  identified  as  a  bear, 
a  figure  in  Dresden  37a  (PI.  35,  fig.  3).  This  represents  a 
creature  with  the  body  of  a  man  walking  erect  but  with  the 
head  apparently  of  some  carnivorous  mammal,  as  shown  by 
the  prominent  canine  tooth.  This  appears  as  a  tonalamatl 
figure.  The  resemblance  to  a  bear  is  not  very  clear.  Less 
doubt  attaches  to  the  figure  shown  in  PI.  35,  fig.  4,  which 
seems  almost  certainly  to  depict  a  bear.  The  stout  body, 
absence  of  a  tail,  the  plantigrade  hind  feet,  and  stout  claws, 
all  seem  to  proclaim  it  a  bear  of  one  of  the  two  species  above 
mentioned.  This  picture  is  found  in  connection  with  one 
of  the  warriors  shown  in  the  bas-relief  of  the  Lower  Chamber 
of  the  Temple  of  the  Tigers  at  Chichen  Itza.  It  seems  clearly 
to  designate  the  figure  in  much  the  same  way  as  figures  are 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  365 

named  in  the  Mexican  writings,  i.e.,  by  having  a  glyph  show- 
ing this  nearby.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the 
fact  that  here  at  Chichen  Itza,  and,  especially  on  this  bas- 
relief,  there  is  much  which  shows  a  strong  influence  from  the 
north.  The  two  figures  in  Tro-Cortesianus  43a  are  probably 
bears.  Forstemann  (1902,  p.  68)  considers  that  they  are 
men  masked  as  Chacs  or  Bacabs. 

Leaf-nosed  Bat  (Vampyrus  spectrum;  Artibeus  jamai- 
censis;  or  Phyllostomus  hastatus  panamensis) .  Several  re- 
markably diabolical  representations  of  bats  (Maya,  soo, 
usually  written  zotz)  occur  among  the  Maya  remains.  These 
all  show  the  prominent  nose  leaf  distinguishing  the  family 
Phyllostomatidae  and,  as  the  Mayas  probably  used  the  largest 
and  most  conspicuous  of  the  native  species  for  artistic  repre- 
sentation, it  is  likely  that  some  one  of  the  three  species  above 
mentioned  is  the  one  here  shown. 

The  bat  had  a  place  in  the  Maya  pantheon.     One  of  the 


Figs.  U,  12,  13,  14. 
GLYPHS  FOR  MAYA  MONTH  ZOTZ  (BATS). 

months  of  the  Maya  year  (Zotz)  was  named  after  this  animal 
and  the  glyph  for  this  month  shows  the  characteristic  nasal 
appendage.  This  is  to  be  seen  more  clearly  in  the  glyphs 
selected  from  the  stone  inscriptions  (PL  38,  figs.  1,  2,  4-6) 
than  in  those  from  the  codices  (text  figs.  11-14)  although 
the  nose  leaf  is  still  visible  in  the  latter.  The  day  sign  Akbal 
(night)  occurs  as  the  eye  in  the  figures  from  the  manuscripts. 
A  carving  showing  the  whole  body  of  the  bat  is  used  as  a 
glyph  in  Stela  D  from  Copan  (PL  38,  fig.  3).  This  may  also 
represent  the  Bat  god  who  is  associated  with  the  underworld, 
"the  god  of  the  caverns.'^  This  god  is  pictured  on  the  "Vase 
of  Chama"  (PL  38,  fig.  7)  figured  by  Dieseldorff  (1904,  pp. 


366 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 


665-666)  and  by  Gordon  (1898,  PI.  III).  Seler  (1904a)  has^ 
discussed  the  presence  of  this  god  among  the  Mayas,  the 
Zapotecs,  and  the  Nahuas.  The  bat  does  not  seem  to  oc- 
cur in  the  Maya  manuscripts  as  a  god,  although  there  are 
glyphs  which  seem  to  refer  to  this  god  (Dresden  17b),  as^ 
pointed  out  by  Seler,  when  there  is  no  other  representation, 
of  this  deity. 

No  doubt  in  the  times  of  the  Maya  civilization,  these  bats 
haunted  the  temples  by  day  as  they  do  now,  and  thus  became 
readily  endowed  with  a  religious  significance. 

Capuchin  Monkey  {Cehus  capucinus, — C.  hypoleucus 
Auct.)     With  the  possible  exception  of  one  or  two  figures,. 


Fig.  15. 
POTTERY  WHISTLE,  APE.      FROM    ULOA  VALLEY,  HONDURAS. 

mmikeys  (Maya,  maas  or  baao)  are  not  represented  in  the 
Maya  codices  examined.  In  Tro-Cortesianus  88c  (PI.  39, 
fig.  4)  occurs  a  curious  nondescript  animal  with  what  seem 
to  be  hoofs  on  the  forefeet,  a  somewhat  bushy  tail  of  moderate- 
length,  and  a  head  that  appears  to  be  distinctly  bonneted,, 
somewhat  as  in  the  representations  of  the  capuchin.  Stem- 
pell  regards  this  as  a  monkey,  though  recognizing  that  the- 
short  bushy  tail  is  unlike  that  of  any  Central  American 
species.  The  figure  seems  quite  as  likely  a  peccary  or  possibly 
a  combination  of  a  deer  with  some  other  animal.  A  glyph 
(PI.  39,  fig.  5)  found  directly  above  the  figure  just  referred 


ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES  367 

to,  suggests  a  monkey,  though  it  cannot  be  surely  identified. 
A  pottery  whistle  from  the  Uloa  Valley  (text  fig.  15)  shows 
two  monkeys  standing  side  by  side  with  a  posterior  extension 
for  the  mouth  piece.  Their  heads  are  shaped  as  in  other 
representations  of  this  monkey  with  a  distinct  cap  or  bonnet 
and  facial  discs.  A  pottery  stamp  from  the  same  locality 
shows  a  monkey  with  a  long  tail  (Gordon,  1898,  PL  11,  fig.  f). 
It  recalls  the  drawings  of  monkeys  given  by  Strebel  (1899,. 
Pis.  1-4). 

In  the  Nuttall  Codex  are  numerous  heads  and  a  few  other 
figures  of  a  monkey,  which  from  the  erect  hair  of  the  crown, 
curling  tail,  and  distinctly  indicated  facial  area  must  be  the 
common  bonneted  or  capuchin  monkey  of  Central  America. 
This  species  does  not  occur  in  Yucatan.  What  is  undoubtedly 
the  same  animal  is  shown  as  a  head  glyph  in  PL  39,  fig.  8, 
from  the  Aubin  manuscript.  The  identifications  of  the  head- 
forming  glyphs  in  the  Nuttall  and  the  Aubin  manuscripts 


Figs. '16, 17,  18,  19. 
GLYPHS  FOR  MAYA  DAY  CHUEN. 

are  certainly  correct  as  the  Nahua  day  sign  {OgomatU)  means?, 
ape. 

Text  figs.  16-19,  show  some  of  the  signs  for  the  day  Chuen 
from  the  Maya  codices.  This  is  the  day  corresponding  to  th& 
day  Ogomath  of  the  Nahuas.  There  is  little  resembHng  an 
ape  in  the  Maya  signs  although  it  has  been  remarked  that  the 
sign  may  show  the  open  jaws  and  teeth  of  this  animal. 

Forstemann  (1897)  as  noted  by  Schellhas  (1904,  p.  21) 
alludes  to  the  fact  that  the  figure  of  god  C,  which  occurs  also 
in  the  sign  for  the  north,  in  the  tonalamatl  in  Dresden  4a-10a 
occurs  in  the  day  Chuen  of  the  Maya  calendar,  and  this  corre-- 


368  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

sponds  to  the  day  0(;omatli,  the  ape,  in  the  Nahua  calendar. 
This  would  suggest  a  connection  between  god  C  and  the  ape 
and  this  may  be  seen  in  the  glyphs  for  god  C  (text  figs.  20-24). 
Forstemann  sees  "  an  ape  whose  lateral  nasal  cavity  (peculiar 
to  the  American  ape  or  monkey)  is  occasionally  represented 
plainly  in  the  hieroglyph  picture."  He  also  associates  god  C 
with  the  constellation  of  Ursa  Minor. 


Figs.  20,  21,  22,  23,  24. 
GLYPHS  OF  GOD  C. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  detailed  examination  of  the  fauna 
shown  in  the  codices  that  after  all  a  comparatively  small 
part  of  the  animal  life  of  the  country  occupied  by  the  Maya 
speaking  peoples  is  represented.  The  drawings  in  some 
cases  are  fairly  accurate,  so  that  there  is  little  diffi- 
culty in  determining  the  species  intended  by  the  artist.  At 
other  times,  it  is  hazardous  to  state  the  exact  species  to  which 
the  animal  belongs.  It  is  only  in  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  cases,  however,  that  there  is  any  great  doubt 
attached  to  the  identification.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
drawings  of  the  Dresden  manuscript  are  much  more  care- 
fully and  accurately  done  than  those  of  the  Tro-Cortesianus. 
A  greater  delicacy  and  a  more  minute  regard  for  detail  char- 
acterize the  Dresden  drawings  in  general. 

In  the  animals  selected  for  reproduction  by  the  Mayas, 
only  those  were  taken  which  were  used  either  in  a  purely 
religious  significance  for  their  mythological  character  (and 
here  naturally  there  is  to  be  noted  an  anthropomorphic 
tendency)  or  animals  were  chosen  which  were  employed  as 
offerings  to  the  many  different  gods  of  the  Maya  pantheon. 
The  religious  character  of  the  whole  portrayal  of  animal 
life  in  the  codices  is  clearly  manifest,  and  it  is  this  side  of 
the  subject  which  will  come  out  more  clearly  as  the  manu- 
scripts are  better  known. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Aubin  Manuscript,  See  Seler  1900-1901. 
Beyer,  Herman. 

1908,  The  symbolic  meaning  of  the  dog  in  ancient  Mexico;  in  American 
Anthropologist  (N.  S.),  Vol.  X,  pp.  419-422,  Washington. 
Bologna  Codex,  See  Cospiano  Codex. 
Borbonicus  Codex,  See  Hamy,  1899. 
Borgia  Codex,  See  Seler,  1904-1906. 
Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  Charles  Etienne. 

1869-1870,  Manuscrit  Troano.     Etudes  sur  le  syst^me  graphique  et  la 
langue  des  Mayas;  2  vols.,  4°  Paris, 
Brinton,  Daniel  Garrison. 

1893,  The  native  calendar  of  Central  America  and  Mexico;  in  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society;  Vol.  XXXI,  pp.  258-314, 
Philadelphia. 
1895,  A  primer  of  Mayan  hieroglyphics;  in  Publications  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  Series  in  Philosophy,  Literature,  and  Archaeology, 
Vol.  Ill,  No.  2,  pp.  152,  Boston. 
Camargo,  Domingo  Munoz. 

1843,  Histoire  de  la  R^pubUque  de  Tlaxcallan;  in  Nouvelles  Annales  des 
Voyages  et  des  Sciences  Geographique;  IV  S^rie,  Tome  3,  Paris.     (Span- 
ish edition  published  by  Chavero,  Mexico,  1892.) 
CogoUudo,  Diego  Lopez. 

1688,  Historia  de  Yucatan;  4P,  pp.  791,  Madrid. 
Cortesianus  Codex,  See  Rada  y  Delgado,  1893. 
Cospiano  Codex  (formeriy  Bologna). 

1899,  Published  in  facsimile,  Paris.  (Loubat  edition.) 
Dieseldorff,  Erwin  P. 

1904,  A  clay  vessel  with  a  picture  of  a  vampire-headed  deity;  in  Bureau 
of  Ethnology,  Bulletin  28,  pp.  665-666,  Washington.    (Translation  of 
German  edition  published  in  Zeitschrift  fiir  Ethnologic,  1894,  pp.  576- 
577.) 
Dresden  Codex,  See  Forstemann,  1880  and  1892. 
Fej^rvdry-Mayer  Codex,  See  Seler,  1901. 

(369) 
IV    24. 


370  ANIMAL  FIGURES  IN  THE  MAYA  CODICES 

Fewkes,  J.  Walter. 

1892,  The  Mam-zraii-ti;  a  Tusayan  ceremony;  in  American  Anthropolo- 
gist, Vol.  V,  pp.  217-246. 
1894,  A  study  of  certain  figures  in  a  Maya  codex;  in  American  Anthropolo- 
gist, Vol.  VII,  pp.  260-274. 
Forstemann,  Ernst. 

1880,  Die  Maya-Handschrift  der  koniglichen  offentlichen  Bibliothek  zu 

Dresden;  4°,  Preface  pp.  xvii,  74  colored  plates,  Leipzig. 
1892,  Second  edition  of  1880,  Dresden. 

1902,  Commentar  zur  Madrider  Mayahandschrift  (Codex  Tro-Cortesian- 
us);8°,  pp.  160,  Danzig. 

1903,  Commentar  zur  Pariser  Mayahandschrift  (Codex  Peresianus);  8°, 
pp.  32,  Danzig. 

1904,  Tortoise  and  shell  in  Maya  literature;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Bulle- 
tin 28,  pp.  423-430,  Washington.  (Translation  of  German  edition  of 
1892.    Dresden.) 

1904a,  The  Pleiades  among  the  Mayas;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Bulletin 
28,  pp.  523-524,  Washington.  (Translation  of  German  edition  pub- 
lished in  Globus,  Vol.  XVI,  No.  15,  p.  246,  1894.) 

1904b,  The  Day  Gods  of  the  Mayas;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Bulletin  28, 

;  pp.  557-572,  Washington.  (Translation  of  German  edition  pubHshed 
in  Globus,  Vol.  LXIII,  Nos.  9,  10,  1898.) 

1906,  Commentary  of  the  Maya  manuscript  in  the  Royal  Public  Library 
of  Dresden;  in  Papers  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Vol.  IV,  No.  2,  pp.  48- 
266.     Cambridge.  (Translation,  revised  by  the  author,  of  the  German 
edition  of  1901.) 
Gann,  Thomas. 

1897-1898,  Mounds  in  Northern  Honduras;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  19th 
annual  report,  part  2,  pp.  661-691,  Washington. 
Gordon,  George  Byron. 

1898,  Researches  in  the  Uloa  Valley,  Honduras;  in  Memoirs  of  the  Pea- 
body  Museum,  Vol.  I,  No.  4,  pp.  44,  Cambridge. 

Hamy,  Ernest  T. 

1899,  Codex  Borbonicus.  Manuscrit  Mexicain  de  la  Bibhotheque  der 
Palais  Bourbon;  Text  and  plates,  Paris. 

Holmes,  William  Henry. 

1895-1897,  Archaeological  studies  among  the  ancient  cities  of  Mexico; 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Publications  8  and  16 ,  Anthropological 

Series,  Vol.  I,  No.  I,  Chicago. 
Hough,  Walter. 

1908,  The  pulque  of  Mexico;  in  Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National 
Museum,  Vol.  XXXIII,  pp.  577-592,  Washington. 
Landa,  Diego  de. 

1864,  Relacion  de  las  cosas  de  Yucatan;  Spanish  text  with  French  trans- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  371 

lation  published  by  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg;  8°,  pp.  516,  Paris.  (The 
references  in  the  text  are  to  this  edition).  Spanish  edition  pubHshed  by 
Juan  de  Dios  de  la  Rada  y  Delgado,  Madrid,  1884,  as  an  appendix  to 
his  translation  of  Leon  de  Rosny's  article,  Essai  sur  le  d^chiffrement 
de  Tecriture  hieratique  de  FAm^rique  Centrale.  Second  Spanish 
edition  in  Coleccion  de  Documentos  in6ditos  (2d  Series);  Madrid, 
1900,  Vol.  XIII,  pp.  265-411. 
1900,  See  second  Spanish  edition  under  1864.  (This  contains  much  that 
is  not  given  in  the  1864  edition.) 
Maler,   Teoberto. 

1901-1903,  Researches  in  the  Usumatsintla  Valley;  in  Memoirs  of  the 

Peabody  Museum,  Vol.  II,  Cambridge. 
1908,  Explorations  of  the  Upper  Usumatsintla  and  adjacent  region;  in 
Memoirs  of  the  Peabody  Museum,  Vol.  IV,  No.  1,  Cambridge, 
Maudslay,  Alfred  P. 

1889-1902,  Biologia  CentraU- Americana,  or  Contributions  to  the  know- 
ledge of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  Mexico  and  Central  America.     Archae- 
ology; Text  and  4  vols,  plates,  London. 
Nuttall  Codex. 

1902,  Reproduced  in  facsimile  by  the  Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge. 
Palacio. 

1686,  Relacion  hecha  por  el  Licentiado  Palacio  al  Rey.  D.  Felipe  II  en  la 
que  describe  la  Provincia  de  Guatemala,  las  costumbres  de  los  Indios 
y  otras  casas  notables;  in  Coleccion  de  Documentos  ineditos  relativos 
al  descubrimiento ,  conquista  y  organizacion  de  las  antiguas  posesiones 
Espanales  de  America  y  Oceania;  Tomo  VI,  pp.  7-40,  Madrid. 
Peresianus  Codex,  See  Rosny,  1887. 
Perez,  Juan  Pio. 

1866-1877,  Diccionario  de  la  lengua  Maya;  sm.  4®,  pp.  437,  Merida. 
Rada  y  Delgado,  Juan  de  Dios  de  la. 

1893,  Codice  Maya  denominado  Cortesianus  que  se  conserva  en  el  Museo 
Arqueologio  Nacional;  42  colored  plates,  Madrid. 
Relacion  de  la  Ciudad  de  Merida. 

1900,  in  Coleccion  de  Documentos  ineditos    relativos   al  descubrimiento, 
conquista  y  organizacion  de  las  antiguas  posesiones  Espanolas  de   Ultra 
mar  (Segunda  serie),  Tomo  XI,  pp.  37-75,  Madrid. 
Relacion  de  Cotuta  y  Tibolon. 

1900,  in  Coleccion  de  Documentos  ineditos  etc.,  {Segunda  serie),  Tomo 
XI,  pp.  93-103,  Madrid. 
Rosny,  Leon  de. 

1876,  Essai  sur  le  dechififrement  de  F^criture  hieratique  de  FAm6rique 

Centrale,  Paris. 
1887,  Codex  Peresianus,  Manuscrit  hieratique  des  anciens  Indiens  de 
FAm^irque  Centrale  conserve  a  la  Biblioth^que  National  de  Paris,  Paris. 


» 


372  ANIMAL  PI  GURES  IN  T5E  MAYA  CODICES 

Schellhas,  Paul. 

1904,  Representations  of  deities  of  the  Maya  manuscripts;  in  Papers  of 
the  Peabody  Museum,  Vol.  IV,  No.  1,  pp.  1-47,'  Cambridge.    (Revised 
translation  of  second  German  edition  of  1904.) 
Seler,  Eduard. 
1^/  1900-1901,  The  Tonalamatl  of  the  Aubin  Collection,  (English  edition), 

pp.  147,  plates  19,  Beriin  and  London.   (Loubat  edition.) 
1901,  Codex  Fej^rv^ry-Mayer.     Manuscrit  Mexicain   pr^colombien  du 
Free  Public  Museum  de  Liverpool  (M  12014).     Text  and  plates,  Paris. 
(Loubat  edition.) 
1902-1903,  Codex  Vaticanus  3773,  Text  and  plates,  Beriin.   (Loubat  ed.) 
1904,' Venus  period  in  the  picture  writings  of  the  Borgia  Codex  group;  in 
Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Bulletin  28,  pp.  355-391,  Washington.     (Trans- 
lation of  German  edition  of  1898.) 
y        1904a,  The  Bat  god  of  the  Maya  race;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Bulle- 
^  tin  28,  pp.  231-242,  Washington.    (Translation  of  the  German  edition 

of   1894.) 
1904b,  Antiquities  from  Guatemala;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Bulletin  28, 
pp.  75-121,  Washington.    (Translation  of  the  German  edition  of  1895. 
republished  in  his  collected  works,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  578-640.) 
1904-1906,  Codex  Borgia.   Eine  altmexikanische  Bilderschrift  der  Biblio- 
thek  der  Congregatio  de    Propaganda  Fide;  4°,  2  vols,  plates,  Berlin 
(Loubat  edition.) 
1909,  Die  Tierbilder  der  mexikanischen  und  Maya-Handschriften:  in 
Zeitschrift  fUr  Ethnologie,  1909,  pp.  209-257,  381-457  (not  completed). 
rStempell,  W. 

1908,  Die  Tierbilder  der  Mayahandschrif ten ;  in  Zeitschrift  flir  Ethnol- 
ogie, 40  Jahrgang,  Vol.  V,  pp.  704-743. 
Strebel,  Hermann. 

1899,  Uber  Tierornamente  auf  Thongefassen  aus  Alt-Mexico ;  in  Veroffent- 
lichen  aus  dem  Konig.     Mus.  fiir  Volkerkunde,  Vol.  VI,  part  1,  pp. 
1-33,  Beriin. 
"Thomas,  t-yrus. 

1882,  A  study  of  the  Manuscript  Troana;  in  Contributions  to  North  Ameri- 
can Ethnology,  Vol.  V,  pp.  234,  Washington. 
1884-1885,  Aids  to  the  study  of  the  Maya  codices;  in  Bureau  of  Ethnology, 
6th  annual  report,  pp.  253-371,  Washington. 
Tozzer,  Alfred  M. 

1907,  A  comparative  study  of  the  Mayas  and  the  Lacandones.     Report 
of  the  Fellow  in  American  Archaeology,  1902-1905;  Archaeological  In- 
stitute of  America,  8°,  pp.  195,  plates  29,  New  York. 
Troano  Codex,  See  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg,  1867-1870. 
Villagutierre  Soto  Mayor,  Juan. 

1701,  Historia  de  la  Conquista  de  la  Provincia  de  el  Itza;  4°,  pp.  660, 
Madrid, 
Vaticanus  3773,  See  Seler,  1902. 


PLATE  1 

MOLLUSCA 

Fasciolaria  gigantea 

1.  Man  emerging  from  shell,  Dresden  41b. 

2.  Same,  Borgia  4. 

3.  Bologna  4. 

4.  Dresden  37b. 

5.  Vaticanus  3773,  66. 

6.  Nuttall   16. 

7.  Sign  for  zero,  Dresden  64. 

8.  Glyph,  Dresden  41b. 

9.  Nuttall  16. 

Oliva  ^ 

10,  11.     Sign  for  zero,  Dresden  63.  ' 

12.  Same,  Dresden  55b. 

Other  Mollusca 

13.  Sign  for  zero,  Dresden  54b. 

14.  Same.     Bivalve,  Dresden  63. 

15.  Bivalve,  Nuttall  25. 

16.  Nuttall  49. 

17.  Nuttall  23. 

18.  Nuttall  16. 

19.  Nuttall  36. 

20.  Nuttall  75. 

21.  Bivalve  closed,  seen  in  profile,  Nuttall  75. 

22.  Same,  Nuttall  25. 

23.  Probably  bivalve,  Nuttall  16. 

24.  Same.     Nuttall  36. 


Plate  1 


8 


<(^> 


10 


4S> 

11 


12  13 


14 15 


10 


18 


17 


21 


22 


19 


23 


(B3v> 


20 


24 


PLATE  2 

INSECTA 

Honey  bee    (Melipona) 

1.  Possibly  a  drone,  Tro-Cortesianus  108a. 

2,  3.     Tro-Cortesianus  108a. 

4,  6      Bees  more  conventionalized,  Tro-Cortesianus  80b. 

5.  Bee  and  honey  comb,  Tro-Cortesianus  109c. 

7.  Honey  combs,  apparently  in  a  hive,  Tro-Cortesianus  lie. 

8.  Maya  day  sign,  Cauac,  possibly  representing  a  honey 

comb,  Tro-Cortesianus  106b. 

9.  Tro-Cortesianus  103  c. 

10.  Honey  combs  in  a  hive,  Tro-Cortesianus  104a. 

11.  Bee  and  honey  comb,  Tro-Cortesianus  109c. 


Plate  "2 


PLATE  3 
INSECTA  AND  MYRIAPODA 

1.  Maggots,  probably  of  Blowfly   {Sarcophaga) ,  Tro-Cor- 

tesianus  27d. 

2.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  24d. 

3.  Larva  of  Acentrocneme  kollari,  Tro-Cortesianus  28c. 

4.  Conventionalized  insect,  possibly  a  hornet,  Nuttall  3. 

5.  Conventionalized  insect,  unidentified,  Nuttall  19. 

6.  Same,  Nuttall  55. 

7.  Same,  Nuttall  5L 

8.  Butterfly  or  moth,  Nuttall  19. 

9.  Butterfly,  Aubin. 

10.  Maya  day  sign,  Akbal,  possibly  representing  the  head  of 

a  centipede. 

11.  Glyph   belonging  to   god   D,   apparently   composed   of 

signs  for  centipede,  Dresden  7b, 

12.  Glyph  for  god  D,  Dresden  14b. 

13.  Glyph,  Dresden  44b. 

14.  Same,  Dresden  27a. 

15.  Centipede   in    connection   with   head-dress    of   god   D, 

Dresden  15c. 

16.  Glyph,  Dresden  9b. 

17.  Same,  Dresden  15c. 

18.  Centipede   in    connection   with   head-dress   of   god    D, 

Dresden  7c. 


Plate  3 


10 


^ 

>'• 

is 

iM 

--^^ 

i6 

w 

■^^ 

1 

PLATE  4 
ARACHNOIDEA,  ARACHNIDA,  CRUSTACEA 

1.  Scorpion  and  deer,  Tro-Cortesianus  48c. 

2.  Scorpion  with  sting  conventionalized  as  a  hand,  Tro- 

Cortesianus  44c. 

3.  Scorpion  highly  conventionalized,  Nuttall  22. 

4.  Spider,  possibly  a  tarantula,  Borbonicus  9. 

5.  Crayfish,  Nuttall  16. 

6.  Crab.  Nuttall  37. 


Plate  4 


PLATE  5 
MYRIAPODA,  PISCES 

1.  Parts    of    a    conventionalized    centipede    with    quetzals- 

tail,  Vaticanus  3773,  13. 

2.  Fish  with  teeth,  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers, 

Lower  Chamber  (Maudslay,  III,  PI.  48). 

3.  Fish  captured  by  heron,  Dresden  36b.     (Compare  PI, 

15,  fig.  5.) 

4.  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers,  Lower  Chamber 

(Maudslay,  III,P1.  45). 

5.  Fish. 

6.  Pottery  fish,  Chajcar  (Maudslay,  IV,  PI.  93). 

7.  Same. 

8.  Fish  as  offering,  Tro-Cortesianus  3a. 

9.  Same,  Dresden  29b. 


Plate  & 


•        f  » 


^^' 
):>i 


---■^ssc 


^ 


9 


PLATE  6 
PISCES 

1.  Possibly  a  flying-fish  (Exocetus),  Nuttall  75. 

2.  Palenque,  Temple  of  the  Cross  (Maudslay,  IV,  PI.  68). 

3.  Nuttall  36. 

4.  5.     Glyphs,  possibly  of  a  shark,  Dresden  40a. 

6.  Fish  as  offering,  Dresden  27c. 

7.  Fish  without  dorsal  fins,  possibly  an  eel   {Muraena)j 

Dresden  65b. 

8.  Fish  as  offering,  Dresden  23b. 

9.  Pottery   animal   from   Santa   Rita    (Gann,    1897-1898, 

PL  34). 

10.  Dresden  44c. 

11.  Nuttall  16. 

12.  Palenque,  Palace  (Maudslay,  IV,  PI.  11). 

13.  Fish  as  offering,  Dresden  33a. 

14.  Fish  as  part  of  the  Great  Cycle  glyph,  Copan,  Stela  G, 

north  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  41). 

15.  Same,  Copan,  Stela  C,  south  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  41.) 

16.  Same,  Copan,  Stela  D  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  48). 

17.  Same,  Copan,  Stela  C,  south  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  41). 


Plate  6 


PLATE  7 
AMPHIBIA 

1.  Frog   (Rana),  Tro-Cortesianus  31a. 

2,  3.     Same,  Tro-Gortesianus  lOld. 

4.  Probably  a  toad  {Bufo),  Copan,  Oblong  altar  (Maudslay, 

I,  PL  114). 

5.  Frog  or  toad,  Tro-Cortesianus  17b. 

6.  Frog  and  fish,  Copan,  Altar  O  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  85). 

7.  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers,  Lower  Chamber 

(Maudslay,  III,  PI.  46). 


IV.     25 


Flats  7 


PLATE  9 
REPTILIA 

Rattlesnake  {Crotalus) 

1.  Tro-Cortesianus  33b. 

2.  Nahua  day  sign,  Couatl,  Auh'm  10. 

3.  Tro-Cortesianus  52c. 

4.  Tro-Cortesianus  40b. 

5.  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers,  Painted  Chamber 

(Maudslay,  III,  PL  40). 

6.  Nuttall  29. 

7.  Glyph  representing  rattles, '^Tro-Cortesianus  106c. 

8.  Tro-Cortesianus  lOOd.  i 

9.  Chichen   Itza,   Temple   of  the  Tigers,  Painted  Chamber 

(Maudslay,  III,  PL  40). 
10.     Nuttall  54. 


PLATE  10 
REPTILIA 

Serpents 

1.  Tree  snake  (possibly  Lachesis),  Dresden  27c. 

2.  Nuttall  37. 

3.  Dresden  57b. 

4.  NuttaU  5. 

5.  Nuttall  37. 

6.  Nuttall. 

7.  Serpent  in  connection  with  long  number  series,  Dres- 

den 62. 

8.  Dresden  37b. 

9.  Dresden  40c. 


Plate  10, 


PLATE  11 
REPTILIA 

Serpents 

1.  Large  snake  with  conventionalized  spots,  Tro-Cortesianus 

30a. 

2.  Tro-Cortesianus  31b. 


Platb  11 


.^^^^j^f^S::^ 


PLATE  12 

REPTILIA 

Iguana,  Lizards 

1.  Iguana  as  offering,  Tro-Cortesianus  105c. 

2.  Iguana,  Tro-Cortesianus  3b. 

3.  Iguana,  as  offering  with  Kan,  Dresden  43c. 

4.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  107b. 

5.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  6a. 

6.  Same,  Dresden  29b. 

7.  Offering,  possibly  representing  a  lizard,  Dresden  27b. 

8.  Same,  Dresden  34a. 

9.  Lizard  used  for   Uinal  glyph,  Copan,  Stela  D,  gl.  4. 

(Maudslay,  I,  PL  48). 

10.  Nahua  day  sign,  Cuetzpalin  (lizard),  Aubin  10. 

11.  Lizard,  Dresden  3a. 

12.  Nuttall  10. 

13.  Offering,   the   portion   with   serrated   margin   possibly 

representing  an  iguana,  Tro-Cortesianus  12b. 

14.  Lizard.  Nuttall  2. 


Plate  12 


11 


14 


PLATE  13 
REPTILIA 

Crocodile  (Crocodilus) 

1.  Glyph  of  the  Nahua  day  sign,  Cipactli,  Nuttall  1. 

2.  Crocodile  represented  by  head  and  limb,  Nuttall  36. 

3.  Same  as  fig.  1,  Nuttall  1. 

4.  Same  as  fig.  1,  Nuttall  4. 

5.  Same  as  fig.  1,  Nuttall  9. 

6.  Same  as  fig.  1,  Nuttall  47. 

7.  Same  as  fig.  1,  Nuttall  1. 

8.  Nuttall  75. 

9.  Head  of  lizard  or  possibly  crocodile  used  as  a   Uinal 

glyph,    Palenque,    Temple    of   the    Foliated    Cross 
(Maudslay,  IV,  PI.  82,  gl.  6). 

10.  Head  of  crocodile,  Dresden  52b. 

11.  Head,  possibly  of  a  crocodile,  Palenque,  Temple  of  the^ 

Foliated  Cross  (Maudslay,  IV,  PL  82,  gl.  0,  4). 

12.  Conventionalized  head  of  a  crocodile,  Dresden  53b. 


Plate  13 


10 


0  X2 


It 


PLATE  14 
REPTILIA 

Turtles 

1.  Turtle,  Tro-Cortesianus  19b. 

2.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  17b. 

3.  Swimming  turtle,  Tro-Cortesianus  17a. 

4.  Possibly  representing  a  turtle,  Nuttall  33. 

5.  Turtle,  Tro-Cortesianus  81c. 

6.  Freshwater  turtle  {Chelydra)  with  leeches  attached,  Tro- 
I  Cortesianus  72b. 

7.  Glyph  for  fig.  3. 

8.  Glyph. 

9.  Glyph. 

10.  Glyph. 

11.  Turtle,  Nuttall  43.  •    ] 

12.  Turtle  god,  Aac,  Dresden  49. 


Plate  14 


PLATE  15 

AVES 

Herons   Frigate  bird 

1.  Heron,    stucco  ornament,  Palenque,  Palace,  House  B 

(Maudslay,  IV,  PL  18). 

2.  Heron  head-dress,  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers, 

Lower  Chamber  (Maudslay,  III,  PI  45). 

3.  Head  and  neck  of  a  heron,  Dresden  37b. 

4.  Heron,  Nuttall  74. 

5.  Heron  with  fish,  Palenque,  Temple  of  the  Cross,  West 

side  panel  (Maudslay,  IV,  PL  71). 

6.  Heron 

7.  Heron  with  a  fish  as  a  head-dress,  Dresden  36a. 

8.  Fork-tailed    bird,    probably    a    Frigate    bird    (Fregata 

aquild),  Tro-Cortesianus  34a. 

9.  Same,  arranged  for  offering,  Dresden  35a. 


IV    26 


Plate  15 


PLATE  16 
AVES 

OcELLATED  TuRKEY  {AgriochaHs  ocellata) 

1.  Turkey  in  trap,  Tro-Cortesianus  93a. 

2.  Turkey,  Tro-Cortesianus  10b. 

3.  Turkey  snared,  Tro-Cortesianus  91a. 

4.  Tro-Cortesianus  4a. 

5.  Tro-Cortesianus  95c. 
♦6.  Tro-Cortesianus  37b. 

7.  Vaticanus  3773,  14. 

8.  Tro-Cortesianus  36a. 

9.  Whole  turkey  as  offering,  Dresden  26c. 

10.  Head  of  turkey  as  offering,  Dresden  34a. 

11.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  12b. 
:12.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  105b. 

13.  Dresden  20a. 

14.  Head  of  turkey  as  offering,  Dresden  41c. 

15.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  107b. 

16.  Same,   Dresden   29c. 

17.  Same,  Dresden  28c. 


Plate  16 


PLATE  18 

AVES. 

King  Vulture  {Sarcorhamphus  papa),  Black  Vulture 
{Catharista  urubu) 

1.  Glyph  of  head  of  King  Vulture,  Dresden  lib. 

2.  Glyph  for  Nahua   day   sign,    Cozcaquauhtli,  Nuttall  5. 

3.  Same  as  fig.  2,  Nuttall  41. 

4.  Same  as  fig.  2,  Nuttall  5. 

5.  Same  as  fig.  2,  Nuttall  4. 

6.  Same  as  fig.  2,  showing  considerable  conventionaliza- 

tion,  Nuttall  2. 

7.  Same  as  fig.  2,  Nuttall  3. 

8.  Same  as  fig   2,  further  reduced,  Nuttall  18. 

9.  Same  as  fig.  2,  Nuttall  3. 

10.  Same  as  fig.  2,  Nuttall  20. 

11.  Probably  a  Black  Vulture,  Tro-Cortesianus  95c. 

12.  Black  Vulture,  Tro-Cortesianus  70a. 

13.  Same,  Dresden  17b. 

14.  Possibly  a  Black  Vulture,  Chichen  Itza,  Monjas,  east 

(Maudslay,  III,  PI.  13). 

15.  Head  of  Black  Vulture,  Nuttall  32. 

16.  Glyph  of  head  of  same,  Dresden  54b. 

17.  Black  Vulture,  Tro-Cortesianus  36b. 

18.  Head  of  same,  Tro-Cortesianus  26c. 

19.  Same,  Dresden  39c. 

20.  Same,  Nuttall  19. 

21.  Same,  Nuttall  34. 

22.  Same,  Dresden  37c. 

23.  Same,  Nuttall  27. 

24.  Same,  Nuttall  1. 

25.  Same,  Nuttall  34. 

26.  Same,  Nuttall  9. 

27.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  19b. 


i 


Plate  18 


8  &  10 


^0^ 


11 


13 


14 


15 


17 


16 


18 


19  20  ^l  22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


®: 


27 


PLATE  19 

AVESc 
Vultures 

1.  Vulture  (probably  a  King  Vulture)   tearing  at  entrails 

of  an  animal,  Tro-Cortesianus  42a. 

2.  Nuttall  69. 

3.  Nuttall  74. 

4.  Possibly  a  Black  Vulture,  Tro-Cortesianus  35b. 

5.  Tro-Cortesianus  26d. 

6.  Tro-Cortesianus  26d. 

7.  Dresden  3a. 

8.  Glyph,  Copan  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  16). 

9.  Glyph,  Copan,  Altar  K  (Maudslay,  I,  gl.  73). 

10.  Glyph,  Tikal,  House  9  (Maudslay,  III,  PI.  79). 

11.  Black  Vulture  and  snake,  Dresden  36b. 

12.  Probably  vultures,  Tro-Cortesianus  100b. 

13.  Probably  a  vulture,  Tro-Cortesianus  18b. 

14.  Same,  Temple  of  the  Tigers,  Lower  Chamber,  Chichen 

Itza  (Maudslay,  III,  PI.  46). 


Plate  19 


^^g»>-:a 


/ 


PLATE  20 

AVES 

Harpy  Eagle  {Thrasaetos  harpyia) 

^    1.  Glyph,  Copan  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  16,  gl.  3). 

2.  Nuttall  53. 

y  S.  Glyph,  Copan  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  16,  gl.  13). 

■  4.  Tro-Cortesianus  88c. 

5.  Part  of  a  head-dress,  Dresden  14c. 

6.  Peresianus  2. 

7.  Dresden  14b. 

8.  Eagle  with  crest  feathers  tipped  by  flints,  Nuttall 

9.  Glyph,  Tro-Cortesianus   107c. 

10.  Stone  carving,  Chichen  Itza  (Maudslay,  III,  PI.  52)  ► 

11.  Dresden  23c. 

12.  Possibly  an  eagle's  head,  Dresden  43c. 

13.  Possibly  an  eagle,  Dresden  74. 

14.  Bologna  7. 


Plate 


PLATE  21 

AVES 
Yucatan  Horned  Owl  {Bubo  virginianus  mayensis) 

1.  Owl  in  flight,  Stucco  ornament,  Palenque,  Palace,  House- 

E  (Maudslay,  IV,  PL  43). 

2.  Stone  carving  of  owl,  Yaxchilan,  Stela  4  (Peabody  Mu- 

seum Memoirs,  II,  PI.  70). 

3.  Ow    in  flight,  carved  in  wood,  Tikal,  House  C,  linteL 

(Maudslay,  III,  PI.  78). 


Plate  21 


T227 -n;S7 C^T- ^r 


PLATE  22 

AVES 

Yucatan  Horned  Owl   {Bubo  virginianus  mayensis) 

1.  Bologna  7. 

2.  As  a  head-dress,  Tro-Cortesianus  95c. 

3.  Borgia  7. 

4.  On  end  of  staff  carried  by  warrior,  Chichen  Itza,  Temple 

of    the    Tigers,    Lower    Chamber    (Maudslay,    III, 
PL  49). 

5.  Aubin  13. 

6.  Head    highly    conventionalized,    Palenque,    Temple    of 

the  Sun  (Maudslay,  IV,  PL  88). 

7.  Screech-owl  (chiqudtli),  Aubin. 


ATE  2 


'PLATE  23 

AVES 

Yucatan  Screech  Owl  or  Moan-bird  {Otus  choliba 
thompsoni) 

1.  Dresden  7c. 

2.  Tro-Cortesianus  66a. 

3.  Dresden  11a. 

4.  As  a  head-dress,  Tro-Cortesianus  94c. 

5.  As  a  head-dress,  Dresden  18b. 

6.  Glyph  associated  with  Moan-bird,  Dresden  7c. 

7.  Same,  Dresden  7c. 

8.  Dresden   10a. 

9.  Peresianus    10. 

10.  Peresianus  5. 

11.  Glyph  representing  head,  Dresden  38c. 

12.  Same,  Dresden  8b. 

13.  Same,  Dresden  53b. 

14.  Same,  Dresden  16c. 

15.  Glyph  possibly  representing   Moan-bird,   Dresden  38c, 

16.  Glyph  of  head,  Dresden  53b. 

17.  Glyph  associated  with  Moan-bird. 

18.  Tro-Cortesianus  73b. 

19.  As  a  head-dress,  Dresden  16c. 

20.  As  a  head-dress,  Tro-Cortesianus  95c. 

21.  Glyph   associated  with  Moan-bird,   Dresden  7c. 


IV      27 


i?i?. 


PLATE  23 


PLATE  24 

AVES 

Coppery-tailed   Trogon    or    Quetzal  (Pharomacrus 
mocinno) 

1.  Head-dress  with  crest  feathers  shown  as  knobs,  Dres- 

den 7c. 

2.  Head-dress,  Dresden  13b. 

3.  Same,  Dresden  16c. 

4.  Tro-Cortesianus   100b. 

5.  Tro-Cortesianus   70a. 

6.  Head-dress,   Tro-Cortesianus   94c. 

7.  Nuttall  33. 

S.     Conventionalized  tail  as  a  head  ornament,  Dresden  20c. 
9.     Vaticanus  3773,  17. 

10.  Glyph,  Palenque,  Temple  of  the  Sun   (Maudslay,  IV, 

PL  89,  gl.  O,  9). 

11.  Trogon  descending  on  a  sacrifice,  Bologna  8. 

12.  Tro-Cortesianus  36b. 

13.  Glyph,  Copan  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  111,  gl.  54). 

14.  Glyph  apparently  representing  a  trogon's  head,  Dres- 

den 20c. 

15.  Same,  Dresden  9b. 

16.  Same,  Dresden  3a. 

17.  Head,    Nuttall    43. 

18.  Tro-Cortesianus  26c. 

19.  Figure  with  head  ornament  resembling  a  trogon  glyph ^ 

Dresden  20c. 


Plate  24 


PLATE  25 

AVES 

Blue  Macaw  {Ara  militaris) 

1.  Figure  with  macaw  head  and  holding  firebrands,  Dres- 

den 40b. 

2.  Head-dress,  Dresden  16c. 

3.  Tro-Cortesianus  12a. 

/'       4.     Glyph,  Copan,  Stela  11  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  112,  gl.  12). 
./        5.     Same,  Copan,  Stela  B  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  38). 
6.     Glyph  used  in  connection  with  fig.  1. 
.   7.     Glyph. 
f^     8.     Stone   carving   of   upper   mandible   and   head,    Copan, 
Stela  B  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  37). 
9.     Head,  probably  of  a  turtle,  month  sign  Kayab,  Quirigua, 
Stela  A  (Maudslay,  II,  PL  7,  gl.  14). 
y     10.     Head,  probably  of  a  macaw,  Copan,  Altar  Q  (Maudslay, 
I,  PL   93). 
11.     Tro-Cortesianus  37b. 
V^    12.     Head,  probably  of  a  macaw,  Copan,  Stela  A  (Maudslay, 
I,  PL  30,  gL  19). 
13.     Tro-Cortesianus  94c. 


Plvte  25 


fK 


— «r-3 


12 


PLATE  26 
AVES 
Parrots,  Turkeys 
1.     Macaw  as  a  head-dress,  Tro-Cortesianusj  26c. 


\/    3. 


2.     Bird  of  sacrifice,  doubtless  an  Ocellated  Turkey    (Agrio- 
chans)  Dresden  25c.     (Compare  also  Dresden  26c 
27c,    28c.) 
Head-dress,  probably  a  macaw,  Copan,  Altar  Q  (Mauds- 
lay,  I,  PI.  92). 

4.  Possibly  a  parrot  (Amazona),  Nuttall  4. 

5.  Head-dress,  head  of  a  macaw,  Tro-Cortesianus  89a. 

6.  Head-dress,  possibly  representing  a  parrot,  Dresden  12b. 

7.  Possibly  a  parrot  {Amazona),  Nuttall  71. 

8.  Glyph  representing  a  macaw's  head,  Tikal,  Temple   C 

(Maudslay,  III,  PI.  78). 

9.  Parrot-like  head-dress,  Dresden  19a. 

10.  Possibly  a  macaw,  Tro-Cortesianus  37b. 

11.  Parrot-like  head-dress,  Dresden  lib. 

12.  Bird  of  sacrifice,   probably   an  Ocellated   Turkey   or   a 

Chachalaca,  Nuttall  22. 

13.  Parrot-like  head-dress,  Dresden  11a. 

14.  Head  of  Ocellated  Turkey  or  a  Chachalaca,  Nuttall  5. 


Plate  26 


// 


<^ 


12 


13 


U 


PLATE  27  ^        ' 

AVES 
Miscellaneous 

1.  Bird  of  sacrifice,  an  Ocellated  Turkey  or   a   Chachalaca, 

Nuttall  2. 

2.  Same,  Nuttall  IG. 

3.  Same,  Nuttall  19. 

4.  Same,   Nuttall   1. 

5.  Woodpecker  possibly  Campephilus  imperialis,  Nuttall  74. 

6.  Same,  Nuttall  71. 

7.  Possibly  a  Raven  {Corvus  corax  sinuatus) ,  Nuttall  48. 

8.  Parrot  (cocho),  Aubin  11. 

9.  Same,  Aubin  13. 

10.  Turkey-cock  {uexolot),  Aubin  11. 

11.  Same,  Aubin  13. 


Plate  27 


^\m<u^ 


*)!«»&• 


^        /  ^ 


^ 


>8 


;/ 


y 


PLATE  28 
Various  Animals 

1.  Earthenware    vessel    representing    a    tapir    {Tapir ellay 

with  a  necklace  of  Oliva  shells   (Seler,   1904b,    p. 
106,  fig.  23). 

2.  Stone  carving,  possibly  of  a  King  Vulture  {Sarcorham- 

phus  papa),  Copan,  Altar  T  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  96). 

3.  Stone  carving,  possibly  a  lizard,  Copan,  Stela  6  (Mauds- 

lay  I,  PL  107). 

4.  Stone  carving,  probably  a  jaguar  (Felis  onca  hernandezi), 

Copan,  Stela  2  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  102). 

5.  Stone  carving  of  a  Black  Vulture   (Catharista  urvbu), 

Copan,  Stela  D  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  48). 

6.  Lizard  (?)  attacked  by  two  birds  (?)  perhaps  vultures, 

Quirigua,  Altar  B  (Maudslay,  II,  PL  15). 


Plate  28 


PLATE  29 
MAMMALIA 

Armadillo  and  Miscellaneous 

1.  Nine-banded     Armadillo     {Tatu    noremcinctum) ,    Tro- 

Cortesianus  103a. 

2.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  92d. 

3.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  103a. 

4.  Armadillo  captured  in  a  pitfall,  Tro-Cortesianus  48a. 

5.  Undetermined  animal,  Dresden  14c. 

6.  Undetermined  animal,  possibly  a  frog  or  a  marsupial,. 

Tro-Cortesianus  33a. 

7.  Rodent,  Nuttall  11. 

8.  Undetermined  animal,  Tro-Cortesianus  24d. 


Plate  29" 


PLATE  30 
MAMMALIA 
Deer,  Hare  • 

1.  Yucatan  deer,  caught  in  a  snare,  Tro-Cortesianus  48b, 

2.  Yucatan  brocket   (Mazama  pandora)   caught  in  a  pit- 

fall, Tro-Cortesianus  92a. 

3.  Glyph  for  hare  or  rabbit,  Nuttall  16. 

4.  Same,  Nuttall  5. 

5.  Yucatan  deer,  Dresden  bUa. 

6.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  30b. 

7.  Hare  or  rabbit,  Nuttall  22. 

8.  Same,  Dresden  61 


IT   28 


Plate  30 


PLATE  31 

MAMMALIA 

Yucatan  Deer  {Odocoileus  yucatanensis) 

1.  Doe,  Dresden  45c. 

2.  Same,  Fegervary-Mayer  26. 

3.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  29c. 

4.  Same,  Nuttall  50. 

5.  Same  captured  in  snare,  Tro-Cortesianus  86a. 

6.  Head-dress  of  god  M,  Tro-Cortesianus  50b. 

7.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  51c. 

8.  Doe,  Tro-Cortesianus  2b. 

9.  Head  of  same,  Nuttall  43. 

10.  Head  of  doe  as  sacrifice,  Tro-Cortesianus  77. 

11.  Same,  Peresianus  10. 

12.  Haunch  of  venison  as  a  sacrifice,  Dresden  35a. 

13.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  105b. 

14.  Same,  Dresden  28c. 

15.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus   108a. 


Plate  31 


^      1 


^-cO 


11 


13 


la 


^      12 


14 


15 


PLATE  32 

MAMMALIA 

Yucatan    Peccary    (Tayassu    angulatum   yucatanense)  ■ 
Yucatan  Deer   {Odocoileus  yucatanensis) 

1.  Peccary,  Nuttall  79. 

2.  Same,  Dresden  68a. 

[^3.     Combination,  a  peccary's  head  and  forefoot,  with  long 
tail  and  hindfoot  without  hoofs,  Tro-Cortesianus  66a 

4.  Peccary,  Dresden  45b. 

5.  Man  with  peccary  head,  Copan,  Sela  D,  east  (Maudslay, 

I,  PL  46). 

6.  Combination  animal,  with  hoofs  and  dorsal  crest  of  a 

peccary  and  scales  of  a  reptile,  Dresden  75. 

7.  Peccary,   Nuttall  9. 

:8.     Yucatan  deer,  with   conventionalized   antler,  glyph  for 

Nahua  day  sign,  Maqatl,  Nuttall  26. 
'9.     Same,  Peresianus  5. 

10.  Glyph  for  Nahua  day  sign  Ma<;atl,  Aubin  10. 

11.  Same,  Nuttall  5. 

12.  Deer,  Copan,  Stela  N,  East  (Maudslay,  I,  PI.  79). 


1 


Plate  32 


2 


PLATE  33 

MAMMALIA 

Yucatan  Peccary  {Tayassu  angulatum  yucatanense) 

1.  Peccary  caught  in  a  snare,  Tro-Cortesianus  49c. 

2.  Glyph,    Chichen    Itza,    Monjas,    East    (Maudslay,  III, 

PL  13). 

3.  Head  as  a  head-dress,  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers, 

Lower  Chamber  (Maudslay,  III). 

4.  Peccary  caught  in  a  snare,  Tro-Cortesianus  93a. 

5.  Tro-Cortesianus  30b. 

6.  Dresden  62. 

7.  Glyph  representing  a  peccary's  head,  Dresden  45b. 

8.  Same,  Dresden  43b. 

9.  Peccary  caught  in  a  snare,  Tro-Cortesianus  49a. 


Plate 


^ 


PLATE  34 

MAMMALIA 

Jaguar,  Puma 

1.  Jaguar  {Felis  hernandezi),  Nuttall  24. 

2.  Man  seated  in  the  open  mouth  of  an  animal,  possibly 

a  jaguar,  Tro-Cortesianus  20a. 

3.  Nahua  day  sign,  Oceolotl,  Aubin  9. 

4.  Pot  representing  a  jaguar  or  puma  (Gann,  1897-1898, 

PL  34). 

5.  Probably   a    puma  {Felis   bangsi  costaricensis) ,  Chichen 

Itza,    Temple    of    the    Tigers,    Painted    Chamber 
(Maudslay,  III,  PI.  40). 

6.  Chichen  Itza,  Temple   of  the  Tigers,   Lower  Chamber 

(Maudslay,  III,  PI.  50). 

7.  Probably  a  puma,  Dresden  47. 


Plate  34. 


PLATE  35 

MAMMALIA 

Coyote,  Bear,  Jaguar 

1.  Probably  a  coyote  (Canis),  Nuttall  6. 

2.  Same,  Nuttall  26. 

3.  Possibly  a  bear  (Ursus),  Dresden  37a. 

4.  Same,  Chichen  Itza,  Temple  of  the  Tigers  (Maudslay, 

III,   38). 

5.  Jaguar  {Felis  hernandezi),  Dresden  8a. 

6.  Glyph,    probably  of    a  jaguar    head,  Copan,    Stela   4 

(Maudslay,  I,  PL  104). 

7.  Copan,  Altar  V  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  114). 

8.  Jaguar,  Tro-Cortesianus  28c. 

9.  Stone  carving  of  jaguar  head,  Palenque,  Palace,  House 

C  (Maudslay,  IV,  PL  24). 

10.  Jaguar,  Tro-Cortesianus  30b. 

11.  Glyph,  probably  of  a  jaguar. 

12.  Head  of  jaguar  in  fresco,  Santa  Rita  (Gann,  1897-1898, 

PL  31). 

13.  Same,  Tro-Cortesianus  2a. 

14.  Same.  Nuttall  27. 


fLATE  35 


"^^^^^ 


PLATE  36 
MAMMALIA 

Dog  iCanis) 

1.  Dog  and  crab,  Tro-Cortesianus  88c. 

2.  Tro-Cortesianus  37b. 

3.  Tro-Cortesianus  66b. 

4.  Head,   Nuttall  34. 

5.  Nuttall  72. 

6.  Head,  Nuttall  20. 

7.  Probably  a  dog,  Nuttall  3. 

8.  Aubin  9. 

9.  Glyph  for  day  sign  Oc. 

10.  Same. 

11.  Same. 

12.  Tro-Cortesianus   91d. 

13.  Glyph  for  Nahua  day  sign  Itzcuintli,  Aubin  9. 

14.  Tro-Cortesianus  27d. 


PLATE  35 


PLATE  37 
MAMMALIA 

Dog  (Canis) 

1.  Dog  bearing  firebrands,  Dresden  40b. 

2.  Same,  Dresden  39a. 

3.  Same,  Dresden  36a. 

4.  Tro-Cortesianus   88a. 

5.  Dresden  21b. 

6.  Tro-Cortesianus  24c. 

7.  Dresden   13c. 

8.  Tro-Cortesianus  37a. 

9.  Dresden  30a. 

10.  Dresden  7a. 

11.  Glyph  supposed  to  represent  a  dog's  ribs,  Dresden  13c. 

12.  Dresden  29a. 

13.  Head,  Tro-Cortesianus  91d. 


Platb  37 


PLATE  38 

MAMMALIA 

Leaf-nosed  Bat  (Vampyrus  spectrum  or  Phyllostomus  hasta- 
tus  panamensis) 

L     Glyph,  Chichen  Itza,  Akat  'Cib  (Maudslay,  III,  PL  19.) 

2.  Glyph,  Copan  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  8). 

3.  Bat  god,  drawn  as  glyph,  Copan,  Stela  D  (Maudslay, 

I,  PL  48). 

4.  Glyph,  Copan  (Maudslay,  I,  PL  8). 

5.  Glyph,  Palenque,  Temple  of  the  Inscriptions   (Mauds- 

lay, IV,  PL  60,  gL  Q  1). 

6.  Glyph,  Tikal  (Maudslay  III,  PL  74,  gl.  41). 

7.  Bat  god  used  as  decoration  on  pattery,  Cham.i  (Dle^el- 

dorff,    1904). 


IV  29 


PLATE  39 
MAMMALIA 

Monkey  and  Miscellaneous 

1.  Capuchin  monkey  {Cebus  capucinns),  Nuttall   1. 

2.  Same,  Nuttall  5. 

3.  Head  of  same,  Nuttall  38. 

4.  Nondescript  animal,  possibly  a  combination  of  monkey 

and  peccary,  Tro-Cortesianus  88c. 

5.  Glyph,  possibly  representing  a  monkey,  found  in  con- 

nection with  fig.  4. 

6.  Glyph  of  head  of  monkey,  Nuttall  1. 

7.  Head  of  long-nosed  god,  Tro-Cortesianus  30a. 

8.  Head  of  monkey,  glyph  for  Nahua  day  sign,  Ogomatli, 

Aubin  9. 

9.  Long-nosed  god,  Tro-Cortesianus  30b. 
10.     God  with  head-dress,  Dresden  5c. 


